13. Adjectival and Adverbial Syntax

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13.1 Types of Adjectives

Adjectives are any words that directly modify a noun and decline in agreement with it in gender, number, and case. This includes qualitative adjectives (describing a comparable quality - 1), relative adjectives (describing non-comparable qualities - 2), ordinals (describing location in a sequence - 3), possessives (indicating possession, much like the genitive - 4), and participles (adjectivalized verbs - 5).

(1) Стари будови Новеграда стали вокражени на вуисами неборѣзам соврѣменна града.
(Stári budóvi Novegráda stáli vokráźeni na vuísami neborězám sovrě́menna gráda.)
Old-nom.pl building-nom.pl Novegrad-gen.sg become-past-pl surround.perf-part.pass.perf-nom.pl on high-datins.pl skyscraper-datins.pl modern-gen.sg.masc city-gen.sg
"The old (1) buildings of Novegrad have become surrounded (5) by the tall (1) skyscrapers of the modern (1) city."

(2) Ярославовей Дуоре на правѣ берегѣ рѣгѣ Вољхове буиле мѣстом, куде стояле срѣдновѣгеве палаце.
(Iaroslávovei Duóre na právě béregě rěgě́ Vołhóve buíle mě́stom, kudé stoiále srědnověgéve paláce.)
Yaroslav-adj-nom.sg.masc.def Courtyard-nom.sg on right-loc.sg.masc shore-loc.sg river-gen.sg Volhov-nom.sg be-past-masc place-datins.sg, where stand-past-masc medieval-nom.sg.masc palace-nom.sg
"The Yaroslav (4) Court on the right (2) bank of the Volhov River was the site of a medieval (2) palace."

(3) Класи концаци во другаю со дўѣдешитем.
(Klási kóncaci vo drugáiu so dwědéśitem.)
Class-nom.pl finish-3pl-mid in second-acc.sg.fem.def with twenty-datins
"Classes end at 2:20." (lit. "second (3) [hour] with twenty [minutes]")

13.2 Agreement

13.2.1 Across a Copula

Across a copula, adjectives must still agree in gender, number, and case with their subject. Unlike nouns, an adjective functioning as the complement does not take the dative-instrumental case.

(1) Мой лубиме куѣте - шинье.
(Mói lubíme kuě́te - śínje.)
My-nom.sg.masc favorite-nom.sg.masc color-nom.sg Ø blue-nom.sg.masc
"My favorite color is blue."

(2) Немноге ших нигоу - велем староу.
(Nemnóge śíh nigóu - vélem stárou.)
Few this.part.pl book-part.pl Ø very old-part.pl
"Some of these books are very old."

Any subjects modified by a numeral other than one take nominative plural agreement across a copula. This is because the adjective is modifying the numeral, strictly speaking, as the noun is subordinate to the numeral. The numeral "one", едене, on the other hand is a true adjective, subordinate to the noun it modifies.

(3) Дова стоғана пивок - суѣши еден.
(Dóva stoğána pivók - suě́śi iéden.)
Two-masc glass-gen.sg beer-part.sg Ø better-nom.pl one-acc.sg.masc
"Two glasses of beer are better than one."

13.2.2 With Dual Nouns

Dual nouns and pronouns always take plural agreement from adjectives (with the exception of the dative/instrumental dual, as described in section 12.8).

(3) О ме треба нов очок.
(O mé tréba nóv očók.)
At I.lat need-nom.sg new-gen.pl glasses.dl-gen.pl
"I need new glasses."

13.2.3 With Pluralia Tantum

All pluralia tantum nouns naturally take plural agreement. This includes those that are semantically singular, such as крѣуностия krěunostijá "fortress". However, since these nouns are semantically singular, they can take adjectives that plural nouns generally cannot, including the numeral едене iédene "one". This leads to somewhat unusual sights as едни крѣуностия "one fortress", with a morphologically plural adjective "one".

13.2.4 With Compound Nominal Phrases

Novegradian forms compound nominal phrases such as "apples and oranges", where two different nouns together play a single semantic role such as the subject or direct object, using the preposition со so "with", which requires the dative-instrumental case. This means that a compound subject will therefore consist of two nouns - one nominative and one dative-instrumental. This complicates adjective agreement significantly.

When both nouns are singular:

When both nouns are dual or plural:

When one noun is singular and the other plural:

The rules differ slightly when dealing with a participle that is subordinating a clause to a compound nominal phrase. In such circumstances, the participle agrees in case, gender, and number with the first noun, but also must be definite.

(4) Яс нашеле яблоко с оранжем, стауленое на стољ.
(Iás naśéle iábloko s oránźem, staulénoie ná stoł.)
I.nom find.perf-past-masc apple-acc.sg with orange-datins.sg, place.perf-part.pass.perf-acc.sg.neut.def on table-loc.sg
"I found an apple and orange placed on the table."

13.3 Degrees of Adjectives

13.3.1 Comparative

Comparative adjectives are used to compare two nouns in terms of a given qualitative adjective. Once the comparative suffix is added, agreement must still be made with the noun being directed modified using the regular adjective endings. Infinitive verbs may also be used in place of nouns, but with neuter agreement.

(1) Ша егра - интереснейша.
(Śá iegrá - interesnéiśa.)
This-nom.sg.fem game-nom.sg Ø interesting-comp-nom.sg.fem
"This game is more interesting."

A comparison to another noun is accomplished with неже néźe "than" with the accusative case, which often shortens to неж néź. If the things being compared are two nouns, it may be dropped completely.

(2) Вожити маленей возе-те легоше, неж болиший.
(Vóźiti málenei vóze-te legóśe, neź bóliśij.)
Drive-inf small-nom.sg.masc.def car-nom.sg-top Ø easy-comp-nom.sg.neut, than Ø large-acc.sg.masc.def
"Driving a small car is easier than driving a large one." (неж cannot be dropped here because two verbs are being compared)

The comparative adjectives болше bólśe "bigger" and менише méniśe "smaller" can also be used quantitatively, where they meaning "more" and "fewer" respectively. These comparative adjectives must be in their definite forms.

(3) Суде болшие дешити воз.
(Sudé bólśije déśiti vóz.)
Here Ø big-comp-nom.pl.def ten-acc car-gen.pl
"There are more than ten cars here."

The definite form must be used in the example above because the noun вози "cars" is being dropped to avoid a redundant-sounding phrase. If fully expanded, the above sentence is equivalent to Суде есат болши вози, неже дешити воз, literally "Here there are more cars than ten cars".

The preposition на and the accusative case are used to qualify the difference between the two things being compared.

(4) Она краскейша мене на шеньи сентиметер.
(Oná kraskéiśa mené na śénji sentiméter.)
She.nom short-comp-nom.sg.fem I.acc on seven.acc centimeter-gen.pl
"She's shorter than me by seven centimeters."

A comparison of equality ("as... as") is made using тако (же)... како tako (źe)... kako. Note the use of the nominative case after како.

(5) Оне тако же онме, како 'Ейнштейне.
(Óne táko źe ómne, kako Einśtéine.)
He.nom thus emph intelligent-nom.sg.masc, as Einstein-nom.sg
"He's as smart as Einstein."

The invariable forms векье неж vékje neź "more than" and менише неж méniśe neź "less than" are used to compare finite verbal phrases. One of the verbs may be dropped if they are the same and have the same subject.

(6) Яс лублун цервено вино векье неж (лублун) бѣлое.
(Iás lublún cérveno vinó vékje neź (lublún) bě́loie.)
I.nom love-1sg red-acc.sg.neut wine-acc.sg more than (love-1sg) white-acc.sg.neut.def
"I like red wine more than (I like) white wine."

Векье is also used to form comparatives out of participles, which generally are incapable of taking regular comparative endings. It may be found in the Novegradian equivalent of the "more of an X than a Y" construction as well, which may be more accurately translated as "it is not a Y, so much as [it is] an X".

(7) Ше нет отуѣта, тѣм векье неж пуитем.
(Śe nét otuě́ta, tě́m vékje neź puítem.)
This.nom.sg.neut be.neg.3sg answer-gen.sg, that.datins.sg more than question-datins.sg
"This is more of a question than an answer."

The adverb егье iegjé, when put before a comparative adjective, means "even [more]" and strengthens it further: егье болше iegjé bólśe "even bigger".

13.3.2 Superlative

Superlative adjectives mark the greatest of something. For the most part, they share their forms with the comparative and rely on context for distinguishing the two. In (8), for example, only the superlative meaning makes sense. "The bigger mountain in the world" is nonsensical.

(8) 'Евересте - вуихьей горой во вием мирѣ.
(Everéste - vuíhjei góroi vo vijém mírě.)
Everest-nom.sg Ø high-comp-datins.sg.fem mountain-datins.sg in all.loc.sg.masc world-loc.sg
"Mt Everest is the highest mountain in the world."

If confusion might arise, the prefix най- naj- added to the comparative form forces it to be interpreted as a superlative. This should not be used unless absolutely necessary, as its overuse sounds very uneducated.

(9) Новеграде-те градем со многе „вирстеу‟. Буиле о тово пирве кремене на вией Ружи, старши властерни драги на срѣдновѣгевѣ Еуропѣ, и една зе найранеш систем градоун канаљ, знацин вие то-це буиле едене зе найцишекь град Еуропѣ при шем епохѣ.
(Novegráde-te grádem so mnóge "vírsteu". Buíle o tovó pírve krémene na vijéi Ruźí, stárśi vlásterni drági na srědnověgévě Ieurópě, i iédna ze nairáneś sistém gradóun kanáł, znacín vijé tó-ce buíle iédеne ze naicíśekj grad Ieurópě pri śém iépohě.)
Novegráde-nom.sg-top Ø city-datins.sg with many first-part.pl. Be-past-masc at top.gen.sg first-nom.sg.masc kremlin-nom.sg on all.loc.sg.fem Rus'-loc.sg, old-comp-nom.pl paved-nom.pl road-nom.pl on medieval-loc.sg.fem Europe-loc.sg, and one-nom.fem from super-early-compar-gen.pl system-gen.pl city-adj-gen.pl channel-gen.pl, all.nom.pl mean-adv.imperf rel.acc.sg-that.nom be-past.masc one-nom.sg.masc from super-clean-compar-gen.pl city-gen.pl Europe-loc.sg during this-loc.sg.neut epoch-loc.sg
"Novegráde is a city of firsts - it had the first kremlin in all of Rus', the oldest paved roads in Medieval Europe, and one of the earliest city sewers, making it one of the cleanest cities in Europe at the time."

Expressions such as "second-largest", "third-largest", etc (combinations of comparative and ordinals) are formed periphrastically using the superlative forms. The expression "second-largest X" is literally rendered as "second from the largest X". This is one situation where the най- prefix is required.

(10) Неуграде - друге зе найболеш град Республикѣ.
(Néugrade - drúge ze naibóleś grád Respúblikě.)
Néugrade-nom.sg Ø second-nom.sg.masc from super-large-gen.pl city-gen.pl Republic-gen.sg
"Néugrade is the second largest city of the Republic."

13.3.3 Intensive

The intensive prefix прѣ- prě- is more or less equivalent in meaning with the adverb велем vélem "very". While it can be used with any comparable adjective, many speakers hesitate with applying it to recent loans.

(11) Она мнѣ содала прѣинтересну нигу.
(Oná mně́ sodalá prějinterésnu nígu.)
She.nom perf-give-past-fem intens-interesting-acc.sg.fem book-acc.sg
"She gave me a very interesting book."

It is also commonly used in certain fixed descriptions of historical and religious figures: Мария Прѣцистая Maríja Prěcístaia "the Most-Pure Virgin Mary", Ярослау Прѣмудрей Iarosláu Prěmúdrei "Yaroslav the Wise".

After каде kadé "what a...", the prefix is very frequently used for emphasis. Here it would generally not be translated.

(12) Каде прѣкрасне ше дене!
(Kadé prěkrásne śé déne!)
What_kind-nom.sg.masc intens-beautiful-nom.sg.masc this.nom.sg.masc day-nom.sg Ø
"What a beautiful day!"

The intensive prefix is most commonly used attributively. When the intensified adjective appears in the predicate, then the adverb велем vélem is usually preferred.

13.3.4 Excessive

The stressed prefix во- vó- indicates excessiveness, much like the English adverb "too (much)". It is equivalent to and may be accompanied by the adverb намног namnóg "by far", which generally follows the adjective it modifies. Excessive-degree adjectives may both directly modify a noun or employ copulas.

(13) Ша драга - водиляна!
(Śá drága - vódiliana!)
This.nom.sg.fem road-nom.sg Ø excess-long-nom.sg.fem
"This road is too long!"

(14) Оне мене направиле по драгѣ водилянѣ намног!
(Óne mené naprávile po drágě vódilianě namnóg!)
He.nom I.acc direct.perf-past.masc along road-loc.sg excess-long-loc.sg.fem by_far
"He led me down too long of a road!"

If some modifying clause is subordinated to an excessive-degree adjective, the adverb намног must appear as well.

(15) Ша ленина-та воболша намног со тѣм-це одѣвалеш би яс тѣм.
(Śá lénina-ta vóbolśa namnóg so tě́m-ce oděváleś bi iás tě́m)
This.nom.sg.fem shirt-nom.sg-top excess-big-nom.sg.fem by_far with rel.datins.sg-that.nom dress-past-masc-mid subj.sg I.nom top.datins.sg
"This shirt is too big for me to wear."

Not all adjectives beginning with a stressed во- are excessive. Some are just coincedence, such as вокусне vókusne "tasty".

"Too many/much" and "too few/little" are expressed using the adverbs вомноге vómnoge and вомало vómalo, respectively, with the following noun in the partitive case.

13.3.5 Trial Superlative

The trial superlative тре- tre- is no longer productive in its original function as a superlative. The most common domain where it is found remains in religious terminology.

However, in common usage it has gained a new function as a marker of sarcasm or hyperbole, a usage perhaps comparable to "scare quotes" in English. This is a colloquial phenomenon and should never appear in more formal contexts.

(16) Тако-и, оне рѣѕиле то-це егзамене-те тревайкей ест.
(Táko-i, óne rědzíle tó-ce iegzámene-te treváikei iést.)
Thus-be.3sg-clitic, he.nom say-past-masc rel.acc.sg-that.nom test-nom.sg-top tri-difficult-nom.sg.masc.def be.3sg
"Yeah, he said the test was 'really difficult'."

(17) Трекласная Катя натлеклаш со дуерюм.
(Treklásnaia Kátia natlekláś so dueriúm.)
tri-classy-nom.sg.fem.def Katia-nom collide.perf-past-fem-mid with door-datins.sg
"Oh-so-smooth Katia walked into a door."

13.4 Definite Adjectives

Definite adjectives have three functions—nominalization, marking specifity, and topicalization agreement. This last usage is discussed later.

13.4.1 Definite Adjectives Marking Nominalization

When not modifying nouns directly, definite adjectives by themselves often indicate the ellipsis of the noun being modified, often "person" or "people"—оѕание [луди] "learned [people]" (by extention, "scientists"), ванная [комната] "bath [room]" ("bathroom"), русская [жена] "Russian [woman]", etc. Each of the above can act as full nouns (albeit with adjectival declension); the full forms including the dropped noun are rarely seen except for emphasis.

This is particularly common with dropped topics. This usage is considered different than that described above because it is contextually-dependent. The meaning of "ванная" will be understood the same way in any situation, while добрей "good" would not.

(1) „Котрей кажик-от тортек хокьеш?‟ „Содай мнѣ болшей.‟
("Kótrei kaźik-ót torték hókjeś?" "Sodái mně́ bólśei.")
"Which-acc.sg.masc.def piece-dimin-acc.sg-top cake-part.sg want-2sg?" "perf-give-imper.2sg I.datins large.comp-nom.sg.masc.def
"Which piece of cake do you want?" "Give me the bigger [one]."

In general, a lone definite adjective not modifying any noun can be interpreted as "the X one", unless it is a set expression such as ванная.

13.4.2 Definite Adjectives Marking Specificity

One of the most common uses for the definite adjectives is marking the specificity of a noun. Specificity, a distinction made in Novegradian that tends to give non-natives quite a bit of trouble, is similar to definiteness in that it singles out a single noun from all others. However, unlike definiteness, it tends to specify more of a "the one and only" sort of quality, meaning specificity is more or less independent of context, while definiteness is strongly linked to it. This distinction may be best explained through examples.

The phrase "Новеградеска(я) граница" Novegrádeska(ia) graníca means "Novegradian border". The definite form, Новеградеская граница, refers to the entire borders of the Republic of Novegrad. A question such as "Where is the Novegradian-def border?" would be used, for example, to ask someone to identify the nation's border on a map. The indefinite form, Новеградеска граница, refers to "any" Novegradian border, or more properly, any sections of it. A question such as "Where is the Novegradian-indef border?" would be used in asking someone for directions to the border. Note how specificity is independent of definiteness - the "indefinite" (or perhaps more accurately, "inspecific") phrase новеградеска граница is translated as "the Novegradian border". Using the wrong specificity in a certain context will frequently cause unexpected results. If someone wanted directions but asks for the location of the (definite) Novegradian border, the reply will be something along the lines of "It starts at the Arctic Ocean, runs along Sweden into the Baltic Sea..." (or perhaps more likely a strange look from someone wondering why anyone would pull over to ask such a strange question).

Another example is the phrase "Новеградеске(й) универсидате" Novegrádeske(i) universidáte, "Novegradian university". The definite/specific form Новеградескей универсидате refers to Novegrad State University (in full Новеградескей Сударестуенней Универсидате), located in Novegráde Velíkei. The indefinite/inspecific form новеградеске универсидате refers to any university in Novegrad, or to an ethnically Novegradian university. Again, these terms are independent of definiteness in the English sense. A question such as Куде новеградеске универсидате? by itself would be translated as "Where is a Novegradian university?", but in the context of a conversation about a Novegradian university and a Finnish university, it would be translated as "Where is the Novegradian university (as opposed to the Finnish)?" The specific form "Куде Новеградескей Универсидате?" will always result in the reply "In Novegráde Velíkei".

Any adjective, not just national ones, can display specificity: Цервеней дуоре "Red Square (Moscow)", цервене дуоре "a red square or plaza".

Definite adjectives, as shown in several of the above examples, often form part of place names or specific locations, such as "Novegradian University" and "Red Square". The tendency to use definite adjectives with place names is so strong that they will be used even when an indefinite meaning is impossible, such as Варижеское море Variźeskóie móre "the Baltic Sea". Even though there are no other 'baltic seas' in existance, the Baltic Sea must take the definite form.

Adjectives modifying nouns that already have definite adjectives must also be definite:

(2) Старовѣгевей Ярославовей Дуоре соходит со заложеньа Велигаево Новеграда.
(Starověgévei Iaroslávovei Duóre sohódit so zaloźénja Veligáievo Novegráda.)
Ancient-nom.sg.masc.def Yaroslav-adj-nom.sg.masc.def courtyard-nom.sg come_from-3sg from foundation-gen.sg Great-gen.sg.masc.def Novegráde-gen.sg
"The ancient Yaroslav Court dates to the foundation of Novegráde Velíkei."

However, when a definite adjective modifies a noun phrase already including an adjective, there can be specificity-disagreement.

(3) Вољго-Варижескей водне панти розрѣжаст то-це вѣни можут плавит вмести мора Цернаево со Каспийскием и мора Варижескаево.
(Vółgo-Varíźeskei vódne pánti rozrěźást tó-ce vě́ni móźut plávit vmésti móra Cernáievo so Kaspíjskijem i móra Variźeskáievo.)
Volga-compound-Baltic-nom.sg.masc.def water-adj-nom.sg.masc way-nom.sg allow-3sg rel.acc.sg-that.nom ship-nom.pl be_able-3pl sail.indet-sup between sea-gen.sg Black-gen.sg.neut.def with Caspian-datins.sg.neut.def and sea-gen.sg Baltic-gen.sg.neut.def
"The Volga-Baltic waterway allows ships to sail between the Black and Caspian Seas and the Baltic Sea."

The definite adjective is modifying the phrase водне панти "waterway", not just панти "way, route", which allows there to be specificity disagreement. However, if another adjective were added to the phrase (eg, "long"), it would have to be definite because it would now be modifying the entire phrase Вољго-Варижескей водне панти, which is definite.

13.5 Possessive Adjectives

Proto-Slavic frequently formed possessive constructions by converting the possessor into an adjective. This process is no longer productive in Novegradian, but it has left behind many traces.

There were two main classes of possessive adjectives. In earlier forms of Novegradian (and still in the Northern dialects), the first was formed by adding the suffixes -ине -ine to first, second, and sixth declension stems, -ове -ove to third declension stems, and -еве -eve to fourth and fifth declension stems, identical in origin to the derivational suffixes that are still used today. These would decline as regular adjectives. These are the original source of many surnames ending in -ou or -ine, but which now decline as regular nouns.

On the other hand, many names of towns and other locations in Novegradian end in -ово or -ино, the neuter form of the original adjectives. Such place names generally do still decline as neuter adjectives, though this does vary; some towns advocate adjectival declension while others advocate nominal declension.

Other instances of originally possessive adjectives have since adopted new meanings: братеве bráteve "fraternal" (originally, "brother's"), материне máterine "maternal", etc.

The other form of possessive adjective was formed with the suffix *-j-, which frequently resulted in consonant mutations. These types of possessives have almost all adopted a new fixed meaning and are no longer viewed as possessives; the suffix itself ceased to be productive no later than the 14th century. However, many animal names have both a regularly-derived adjective form and a possessive form, such as кошене kóśene "feline" versus кошие kóśie "cat's". Both forms are now identical in meaning and are fully interchangeable. However, certain disciplines may prefer one or the other form; zoological and taxonomical fields prefer the -j- forms whenever available, for example.

Only two truly possessive adjectives remain in common usage in the standard language, Боже Bóźe "God's" and Христове Hristóve "Christ's". While they do not have to, they typically follow the possessed noun. In the written language they should always be capitalized.

(1) Она кѣловала игону-то с образем Христовом.
(Oná kělovála igónu-to s óbrazem Hristóvom.)
She.nom kiss-past-fem ikon-acc.sg-top with image-datins.sg Christ-poss-datins.sg.masc
"She kissed an ikon with the image of Christ."

While the genitive Христа Hristá could be substituted and the sentence would remain grammatical, most speakers find would find it rather awkward to do so.

13.6 Adjective Modifiers

There are a number of common adverbs and expressions used to modify the intensity of adjectives. Some of these include:

велем vélem "very"

воплонѣ vóploně "quite, to a great degree". Not as strong as велем.

во добрѣ степеньи vo dóbrě stepenjí, домѣрнѣ doměrně, намѣрнѣ naměrně, мѣрнѣ měrně "fairly, rather". Not as strong as воплонѣ. The first three have positive connotations, while мѣрне has more of a negative connotation. Во добрѣ степеньи is somewhat bookish and more typical of higher registers, though its more colloquial varient во степеньи vo stepenjí is more common in speech, but unacceptable in writing. Намѣрнѣ is limited to more casual registers.

також tákoź "so". This form must be placed before the adjective being modified. Alternatively, тако táko may be placed before the adjective and же źe after it: також интересне tákoź interésne, тако интересне же táko interésne źe "so interesting".

вѣрнѣ věrně, попраудой popráudoi "really". An intensive like велем, but also attempts to counter perceived disbelief on the part of the listener/reader.

велнѣ vélně, достоенѣ dostóieně "enough". Велнѣ is generally only used to modify adjectives modifying people, while достоенѣ can modify any adjective. The former must go before the adjective, while the latter can go either before or after. Достоенѣ also has the colloquial variant достай dóstai.

маленѣ máleně "a little bit". Must go before the adjective.

маломаленѣ malomáleně "a tiny bit". Must go before the adjective.

All of the above modifiers may be placed either before or after the adjective unless otherwise specified.

There are also a number of comparative modifiers. Note that not all of them require the comparative form of an adjective, even though they have a comparative meaning:

comp. + намног namnóg "much more": мокнейше намног moknéiśe namnóg "much more capable"

егье iegjé + comp. "even more": егье мокнейше iegjé moknéiśe "even more capable"

менишѣ méniśě + adj. "less": менишѣ мокне méniśě mókne "less capable"

менишѣ méniśě + adj. + намног namnóg "much less": менишѣ мокне намног méniśě mókne namnóg "much less capable"

егье менишѣ iegjé méniśě + adj.: "even less": егье менишѣ мокне iegjé méniśě mókne "even less capable"

немногом nemnógom + comp.: "a bit more": немногом мокнейше nemnógom moknéiśe "a bit more capable"

немногом менишѣ nemnógom méniśě + adj.: "a bit less": немногом менишѣ мокне nemnógom méniśě mókne "a bit less capable".

The adverb немногом nemnógom may freely be replaced by its diminutive немножком nemnóźkom.

13.7 Secondary Predicate Adjectives

13.7.1 True Predicates

Secondary predicate adjectives are adjectives that describe the subject or object of the sentence during the performance of the verb (eg, "Ieváne came home drunk"), as opposed to an intrinsic quality of the subject ("Drunk Ieváne came home") or an adverb modifying the verb ("Ieváne drunkenly came home"). In Novegradian, secondary predicate adjectives appear after the primary predicate; they agree with their head in gender and number, but are always in the dative-instrumental case and indefinite, no matter the case and definiteness of the head noun. When there is both a subject and direct object present in the sentence, it can be ambiguous which the adjective is modifying unless their genders are distinct.

(1) Оне пришеле домове пяном.
(Óne priśéle domóve piánom.)
He.nom arrive.perf-past.masc homewards drunk-masc.sg.datins
"He came home drunk."

(2) Яс ѣ овидѣле плацакьой.
(Iás iě́ ovíděle placákjoi.)
I.nom she.acc perf-see-past-masc cry-part.act.impf-datins.sg.fem
"I saw her crying."

13.7.2 Other Adjectival Adjuncts

Transitive verbs that can nevertheless take an adjectival argument also make it dative-instrumental and indefinite, agreeing in gender and number with whatever their logical head.

(3) Яс соцедовам ѣ красной.
(Iás socédovam iě́ krásnoi.)
I.nom consider-1sg she.acc beautiful-datins.sg.fem
"I consider her beautiful."

Verbs that normally can take a predicate adjective in the nominative case instead use the dative-instrumental when the subject is eliminated. This can be seen, for example, in the adjectival and adverbial participles of буити "be" or стати "become", which can directly take complements but not subjects. However, even when the adverbial participles are used as simultative verbs, the complement must remain in the dative-instrumental.

(4) Буиве застауленом вноу и вноу, о ни треба рѣжатиш отружити ли престауленье.
(Buíve zastáulenom vnóu i vnóu, o ní tréba rěźátiś otruźíti li prestaulénje.)
Be-adv_part.pf delay-part_pass_perf-datins.sg.masc again and again, at we.lat need-nom.sg decide-inf-mid cancel.perf-inf whether performance-nom.sg
"Having been delayed time after time, we need to decide whether to cancel the performance."

This is also true of complements of буити or стати when the verb is impersonal. The adjective will always be neuter in such cases.

(5) Добро е буити младом.
(Dóbro ié buíti mládom.)
Good-nom.sg.neut be.3sg.clitic be-inf young-datins.sg.neut
"It's good to be young."

13.7.3 Semi-Predicatives

The three adjectives едене iédene "alone", саме sáme "by oneself", and раде ráde (no English equivalent, see below) are known as semi-predicatives, since they act more like adverbs yet show case agreement. They may pattern either as regular adverbs or as secondary predicates, but generally appear in the nominative case, not the dative-instrumental.

(6) Она ошла една.
(Oná oślá iédna.)
She.nom leave.perf-past-fem one-nom.sg.fem
"She left by herself."

(7) Ше-то саме можун дѣлати!
(Śé-to sáme móźun dě́lati!)
This.nom.sg-top by_oneself-nom.sg.masc be_able-1sg do-inf
"I can do it myself!"

Sentences with раде ráde are often translated into English using verbs such as "like" or "enjoy". It lacks an English adverbial equivalent, except in the future tense where it is similar to "gladly" or "with pleasure". It is frequently interchangeable with the verb радеети radéieti "enjoy", except that раде cannot be negated to mean "do not enjoy".

(8) Яс раде говорун сон ей.
(Iás ráde govorún son iéi)
I.nom gladly-nom.sg.masc talk-1sg with-n she.datins
"I enjoy talking with her."

(9) Яс раде прийдун ко ваме во наступну снѣжену.
(Iás ráde prijdún ko váme vo nastúpnu sně́źenu)
I.nom gladly-nom.sg.masc arrive.perf-1sg towards you.pl-datins in next-acc.sg.fem December-acc.sg
"I will gladly visit you next December."

(10) Ради не работати.
(Rádi ne rabótati)
Gladly-nom.pl neg work-3pl
"They enjoy not working."

In impersonal sentences or in other situations where there is no true subject, the three semi-predicatives take a special ending: едну iédnu, саму sámu, раду rádu. This fossilized form originates from an old dative case ending that Novegradian has long since lost in other words.

(11) Мнѣ тривожно буити едну.
(Mně́ trivóźno buíti iédnu.)
I.datins disquieting-nom.sg.neut be-inf one.dat_impers
"Being alone makes me feel uneasy."

13.8 Numbers

13.8.1 Inanimate Numerals

In Novegradian, case is generally marked on the numeral while the noun is forced to agree with the numeral modifying it.

Едене (1) is a pronominal adjective, and declines in the same way as other pronouns such as се "this". The following noun always appears in the same case.

(1) Една глава - добро, а довѣ - суѣше.
(Iédna gláva - dóbro, a dóvě - suě́śe.)
One-nom.sg.fem head-nom.sg Ø good-nom.sg.neut, whereas two-nom.fem Ø better-nom.sg.neut
"One head is good, but two is better."

Дова (2) in the nominative/accusative case requires the following noun to be in the nominative dual. If no distinct nominative dual form exists, the form used is identical to the genitive singular. If the numeral is in any other case, the noun must be in that case and dual, or plural if no dual is available.

Три and цетире (3 and 4) in the nominative/accusative case require the following noun to be in the genitive singular. If the numerals are in any other case, the noun must also be in that same case and be plural.

(2) Зе довух зол вуиберите менишее.
(Ze dóvuh zól viberíte meniśéie.)
From two.gen evil-gen.pl pick_out-imper.2pl less-nom.sg.neut.def
"From two evils, choose the lesser."

(3) Яс овидѣле дова оки-ти, горекьие во темѣ.
(Iás ovíděle dóva óki-ti, gorékjije vo temě́.)
I.nom perf-see-past.masc two-acc.neut eye-nom.dl-top, shine-part.act.impf-nom.pl.def in darkness-loc.sg
"I saw two eyes shine in the darkness."

(4) Цетире врѣмена асту суде - велем незоходни. Лѣтенем жарко, жимой холадно.
(Cétire vrě́mena ástu sudé - vélem nezóhodni. Lě́tenem źárko, źimói hóladno.)
Four-nom time-gen.sg year-gen.sg here Ø very different-nom.pl. Summer-datins.sg hot-nom.sg.neut, winter-datins.sg cold-nom.sg.neut
"The four seasons here are very different - summer is very hot, winter is very cold."

The numerals 5 through 10 all require the genitive plural if in the nominative or accusative, and the same case in all other situations, just like two through four.

(5) Ша сода кѣнит пети марек.
(Śá sóda kě́nit péti marék.)
This.nom.sg.fem soda-nom.sg cost-3sg five-nom mark-gen.pl
"This soda costs five marks."

All numerals in the subject position other than "one" take plural agreement on verbs and nominative plural agreement on adjectives across the copula (as in example 4 above). Since nouns in Novegradian are considered subordinated to the numerals, verbs must agree with the numeral (and thus be plural even if the noun is in the genitive singular) and trans-copular adjectives must agree with the numeral (and thus be plural and nominative, since the numeral is also nominative).

Adjectives modifying a numeral phrase directly, however, must agree with the number and case of the noun, not the numeral. If the noun is dual, as in example 3, the agreement is more complicated. If the noun is in the nominative or accusative dual, then the adjective appears in the genitive singular (since the vast majority of nouns lacking unique dual forms will take the genitive singular in this position). If the dual noun is in any other case, then the adjective will be in that case and plural. If in the dative-instrumental, however, the special dative-instrumental adjectival dual ending -ама -ama is used. Compare the agreement in the following examples with око óko "eye" (with a dual) and возе vóze "car" (no dual):

For all higher numbers, which form to use depends on the last portion of the number. If it ends in 1 (such as 21, 91, 131), the same rules apply as for едене (ie, same case). If it ends in 2, 3, or 4 (such as 24, 82, 644), the genitive singular is used. If it ends in 5 through 9 or 0 (49, 20, 100), the genitive plural is used. The only exception are the teens 11 through 19, which all use the genitive plural (because their last element is -цити, a contracted form of дешити "ten", which requires the genitive plural).

Higher numbers, such as тишикьа tíśikja "thousand", милёне milióne "million", and above are all technically nouns, and decline as nouns. The following noun must be in the genitive plural as usual (тишикьа километер "thousand kilometers"), although if the number continues afterwards, the rest of the number declines as expected (милёне дова "1.000.002", not *милёне довух). If there is a modifier before these nouns, the noun/numeral must be in the genitive singular (2-4) or plural (5-10): дова милёна едене "2.000.001", дешити милён "10.000.000". However, the partitive singular and plural may freely be used in this situation as well, so дешити милёнеу déśiti milióneu is an acceptable variant for ten million.

By inverting the numeral and the noun being modified, the value of the numeral is blurred somewhat. For example, пиннацити километер means "fifteen kilometers", while километер пиннацити means "approximately fifteen kilometers". This meaning can be reinforced with the adverb огољо ogóło "approximately".

13.8.2 Animate Numerals

The animate numerals are variants of the normal numerals required when modifying animate nouns (humans or animals). The same rules apply as the inanimate numerals in regard to which case is required. Since "one" does not have an animate form, numerals such as 21, 101, and 571 will be identical for both animate and inanimate nouns.

(6) Во шем класѣ есат дуадешит шентеро студенекь.
(Vo śém klásě iésat duadéśit śéntero studénekj.)
In this.loc.sg.masc class-loc.sg be-3pl twenty seven.anim-nom student-gen.pl
"There are twenty seven students in this class."

Animate numerals also have two other functions not related to animacy. When an animate numeral is used to modify an inanimate noun, the meaning is blurred slightly. This has exactly the same meaning as inversion does with inanimate numerals, and is especially common in time expressions.

(7) Дома бадун по пиннацитеро минут.
(Dóma bádun po pinnácitero minút.)
At_home be.fut-1sg on fifteen.anim-acc minute-gen.pl
"I'll be home in about fifteen minutes."

When used in its nominative form after a noun, it can indicate a modifier that doesn't affect the plurality. This is common with house numbers, bus lines, and the like. The noun itself is free to be in any case, and does not need to agree with the numeral (which is indeclinable when used this way).

(8) О те треба трамвая цетеро со тѣм-це дойдеш дов оспидаља.
(O té tréba tramváia cétero so tě́m-ce doidéś dov ospidáła.)
At you.lat need-nom.sg streetcar-gen.sg four.anim with rel.datins.sg-that.nom get_to.perf-2sg up_to-v hospital-gen.sg
"You need to take streetcar number four to get to the hospital."

13.8.3 Irregular Nouns with Numerals

Only one noun has a truly irregular, suppletive form when quantified by a numeral: "person/people". In all other circumstances, the singular is based on дужа duźá "person, soul" and the plural on луди lúdi, but when quantified most forms are based on the singulative noun лудина lúdina "person". Only numerals ending in едене "one" continue to be based on дужа. On the other hand, if the last element of the numeral ends in "thousand", "million", "billion", etc, then the genitive plural of луди is used (as these act more like nouns than numerals).

Some examples:

13.8.4 Quantified Pronouns

In most situations, the expression "the [numeral] of [pronoun]" (eg, "the three of us") is translated using the regularly-declined pronoun plus a numerical adverb of accompaniment (2-7) or an animate numeral in the dative-instrumental (8 or more). The numeral must always come after the pronoun.

(9) Яс овидѣле их цетром на паркѣ.
(Iás ovíděle íh cétrom na párkě.)
I.nom perf-see-past-masc they-acc foursome on park-loc.sg
"I saw the four of them in the park."

The one exception is when the quantified pronoun is the subject of an existencial construction. In this case, the nominative case animate numerals are used with the genitive case pronouns. These two elements may appear in any order.

(10) Буили насе пентеро.
(Buíli náse péntero.)
Be-past-pl we-gen five.anim-nom
"There were five of us."

This latter construction even applies for numerals ending in "one", which takes a genitive plural ending: Буили их дуадеши едних Buíli íh duadéśi iedníh "There were twenty-one of them".

13.8.5 Adjective Agreement with Numerals

An adjective modifying a quantified noun directly (not across a copula) must always match the grammatical gender, case, and number of the noun it modifies, ignoring semantics. If the noun is in the genitive singular because it follows 3 or 4, for example, the adjective must also be in the genitive singular.

The one exception is with dual nouns. If the noun is in the nominative or accusative dual, adjectives will appear in the genitive singular (just as nouns lacking a dual will appear in the genitive singular in such positions). In other cases, the adjective will match that case, but in the plural.

13.9 Adverbs

13.9.1 From Adjectives

Most adverbs are derived from adjectives using the suffix -ѣ -ě. If the adjective contains the suffix -ск-, на- must be prefixed as well. The most unmarked position for such adverbs is immediately before the main verb.

(1) Оне буистрѣ осбѣгале од мене.
(Óne buístrě osběgále od mené.)
He.nom fast-adv run_away.perf-past-masc from I.gen
"He quickly ran away from me."

(2) Они добрѣ говорат нарусскѣ, а худѣ нановеградескѣ.
(Oní dóbrě govorát narússkě, a húdě nanovegrádeskě.)
They.nom good-adv speak-3pl on-Russian-adv, whereas bad-adv on-Novegradian-adv
"They speak Russian well, but Novegradian poorly."

Adverbs in -ѣ must be distinguished from neuter impersonal adjectives in -о (as in sentences like мнѣ холадно "I am cold"). While neither have an antecedent, they are morphologically and syntactically distinct. Neuter adjectives are capable of having an antecedent without having to restructure the entire clause (although the meaning will change significantly); adverbs can never have antecedents.

13.9.2 From Numerals

The set of adverbs derived from numerals is limited, existing only for the numerals two through seven. However, other values may be expressed periphrastically.

The adverbs of comparison (naduójin, natrójin, nacétro, etc) may be placed after a comparative adjective as a multiplicative (using the conjunction неж neź for comparison) or as an independent adverb meaning "X-fold". For numbers other than two through seven, the construction may be expressed periphrastically as на na + accusative inanimate numeral + крате kráte, declined appropriately. The noun крате kráte has no real translation into English. It is only used in this type of multiplicative construction to mean "X times".

(3) Ше порстени - драже натроин неж ше, котре овидѣла яс во видорѣ марнатѣ.
(Śé pórsteni - dráźe natrójin neź śé, kótre ovíděla iás vo vidórě marnátě.)
This.nom.sg.masc ring-nom.sg Ø expensive.comp-nom.sg.masc three_times than this.acc.sg.masc, that-acc.sg.masc perf-see-past-fem I.nom in other-loc.sg.masc store-loc.sg
"This ring is three times as expensive as the one I saw in the other store."

(4) Обиеме вуитуорестуа овелициле на дуадешити крат.
(Obiéme vuituórestua ovelícile na duadéśiti krát.)
Capacity-nom.sg production-gen.sg increase.perf-past-masc on twenty.acc times-gen.pl
"Production increated twentyfold."

Крате kráte may also be modified by other quantifiers and be followed by a comparative adverb to specify the nature of the multiplicative relationship.

(5) Ше трене идет многе кратеу муднейшѣ.
(Śé tréne idét mnóge kráteu mudnéiśě.)
This.nom.sg.masc train-nom.sg go-3sg many times-part.pl slow-comp-adv
"This train is many times slower."

The adverbs of intensity also serve as multiplicatives of adjectives, but only non-comparatives. It also can indicate how many times an action was performed if used as an independent adverb. Periphrastically, it may be expressed as на na + numeral + разе ráze, declined appropriately. Разе means "time" or "occurence".

(6) Оне надуойци виниве.
(Óne naduóici viníve.)
He.nom two_times guilty-nom.sg.masc
"He is doubly to blame."

(7) Оне мене прожиле на дешити раз простеньа.
(Óne mené proźíle na déśiti ráz prosténja.)
He.nom I.acc ask-past.masc on ten-acc time-gen.pl forgiveness-gen.sg
"He's told me ten times that he's sorry."

The adverbs of accompaniment indicate how many people were involved in an action, but not as a core argument (that is, "they went as a pair" versus "the pair went"). They could be considered equivalent to the English adverb "together", except that they mark number explicitly. For numbers beyond seven, they are formed using the simple dative-instrumental case, but this is uncommon; beyond seven it becomes rather unnecessary and awkward to specify exact numbers, so the generic разом rázom may be used.

(8) Муи ошели троем.
(Muí ośelí tróiem.)
We.nom leave.perf-past-pl threesome
"The three of us left together."

13.9.3 Of Position

Novegradian has a full set of adverbs that indicate location and direction to or from a given point. As with several other Slavic languages, these include distinct adverbs meaning "upstairs" and "downstairs".

Up Down Upstairs Downstairs
Location воверхѣ vovérhě
"above"		 вонизѣ vonízě
"below"		 наверхѣ navérhě
"upstairs"		 нанизѣ nánizě
"downstairs"
Destination навер náver
"upwards"		 нажень náźenj
"downwards"		 коверхом kovérhom
"to upstairs"		 конизом konízom
"to downstairs"
Origin соверху sovérhu
"from above"		 сожень soźénj
"from below"		 соверху sovérhu
"from upstairs"		 сожень soźénj
"from downstairs"

Forward Backward Left Right
Location вопредѣ voprédě
"ahead"		 позадѣ pozádě
"behind"		 налѣвѣ nalě́vě
"on the left"		 направѣ naprávě
"on the right"
Destination копредом koprédom
"forward"		 козадом kozádom
"backward"		 колѣвом kolě́vom
"leftward"		 коправом koprávom
"rightward"
Origin сопреда sopréda
"from in front"		 созада sozáda
"from behind"		 солѣва solě́va
"from the left"		 соправа sopráva
"from the right"

(9) Када доѣдеш до прешѣка, повради шебе колѣвом.
(Káda doiě́deś do préśěka, povradí śebé kolě́vom.)
When go_up_to_by_vehicle-2sg up_to intersection-gen.sg, perf-turn-imper.2sg leftward
"When you reach the intersection, turn left."

13.9.4 Велем 'Very'

The adverb велем vélem "very" may modify verbs as well as adjectives, unlike in English.

(10) Велем хокьун заѣсат Суайѕарюн.
(Vélem hókjun zaiě́sat Suaidzáriun.)
Very want-1sg visit_by_vehicle-sup Switzerland-lat.sg
"I really want to visit Switzerland."

13.9.5 Домове 'Homewards'

The semi-nominal adverb домове domóve means "homewards", originating from an old dative case form of дом "house" that is no longer used in Novegradian. It can be used with any verb indicating movement toward.

(11) Оне хокьет ис домове.
(Óne hókjet ís domóve.)
He.nom want-3sg go-sup homewards
"He wants to go home."

(12) Яс пришеле домове.
(Iás priśéle domóve.)
I.nom arrive.perf-past-masc homewards
"I arrived at home."

Whose home may be specified using the preposition о o plus the genitive case.

(13) Идун домове о Надалин.
(Idún domóve o Nadálin.)
Go-1sg homewards at Nadália-gen
"I'm going to Nadália's house."

With pronouns, however, the situation is more complex. The same о + genitive construction may be used for the first and second persons, but in the third person, the bare genitive is used. This is usually considered a relic of the adverb's original nominal origin.

(14) Идун домове ѣ.
(Idún domóve iě́.)
Go-1sg homewards she.gen
"I'm going to her house."

13.9.6 Стремо '-First'

The adverb стремо strémo is also a quasi-nominal in that it can take nominal arguments. It does not have a direct English analogue, but is much like the morpheme '-first' in expressions like "headfirst". It takes nominal complements in the dative/instrumental case.

(15) Оне понурале стремо главой.
(Óne ponurále strémo glávoi.)
He.nom perf-dive-past-masc first head-datins.sg
"He dove headfirst into the water."

It is also used idiomatically in a number of ways that it cannot be in English.

(16) Оне вехода ходит стремо омем.
(Óne vehodá hódit strémo ómem.)
He.nom always go.indet-3sg first mind-datins.sg
"He always keeps a level head."

In addition to conveying a sense of "preceding", стремо (which originally meant "steep") can also imply something is beneath something else. Compare the two senses in the following sentences.

(17) Она лежила нав озянѣ стремо ногам.
(Oná leźíla nav oziáně strémo nogám.)
She.nom lie-past-fem on-v bed-loc.sg first leg-datins.pl
"She lay backwards on her bed." (ie, her head towards the foot of the bed)

(18) Она лежила нав озянѣ стремо желудокем.
(Oná leźíla nav oziáně strémo źeludókem.)
She.nom lie-past-fem on-v bed-loc.sg first stomach-datins.sg
"She lay on her stomach on her bed."

13.9.7 Bare Adverbs

Bare adverbs without a surrounding sentence, almost always used as interjections, must take the topical ending -то -to. This only applies to adverbs that are phonologically a single word (that is, having a single stress), which does not necessarily correspond to one written word.

(19) Во конецѣ-то!
(Vo konécě-to!)
In end-loc.sg-top
"Finally!"

(20) Яро-то!
(Iáro-to!)
Fierce-nom.sg.neut-top
"Cool!"

This persists so long as the adverb is being used as an interjection, even if there is a sentence providing context.

(21) Во конецѣ-то ти пришеле!
(Vo konécě-to tí priśéle!)
In end-loc.sg-top you.nom arrive.perf-past-masc
"Finally you showed up!"

However, if the bare adverb is being used interrogatively, the то is replaced by ли li. This is written as a separate word.

(22) Оне пришеле на конецѣ ли?
(Óne priśéle na konécě li?)
He.nom arrive.perf-past-masc in end-loc.sg interr?
"He finally showed up?"

 

 

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