25.1 Colors
Novegradian has nine basic color terms, compared to the eleven of English. A basic color term is the highest level of color terminology in a language, a term that cannot be encompassed by another larger term. For example, in English "crimson" is not a basic color term because the term "red" includes "crimson" as well as many other shades.
What constitutes each color varies significantly from the Latinate pattern used throughout much of Europe, the result of the many years of relative isolation the language experienced until around the 17th century, although there has been influence as well from the Uralic languages.
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Цервене cérvene, often translated as "red", encompasses the range from dark reds to medium-strength oranges. Some colors that might be considered very dark purple in English are also included. |  |
Жољте źółte, or "yellow", includes the yellows, golds, and lighter oranges. |
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Желене źeléne, or "green", includes the yellow-greens, greens, and some turqoise. |
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Плаве pláve, or "light blue", covers some blue-greens and goes to the medium blues. |
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Шинье śínje, or "dark blue", includes the darker shades of blue as well as purple. |
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Руде rúde covers the range of browns as well as dull reds. |
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Церне cérne means "black". |
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Бѣле bě́le means "white". |
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All intermediate shades are referred to as хѣре hě́re "grey". |
Two other colors, розове rózove "pink" and оранжеве oránźeve "orange", are gaining increasing usage due to Western European influence. However, they are generally not viewed as "basic" terms at present.
25.2 Time and Date
25.2.1 Months and Weekdays
The days of the week for the most part have transparent meanings related to their position within the week. As in the rest of Europe, the week begins on Monday.
- Monday - понедѣлнике ponedě́lnike "the one after the day of rest"
- Tuesday - торнике tórnike "the second one, the other one"
- Wednesday - срѣда srě́da "the middle"
- Thursday - цетуерге cetuérge "the fourth one"
- Friday - петеке péteke "the fifth one"
- Saturday - собота sobóta "the Sabbath"
- Sunday - недѣла nedě́la "day of no working, rest"
In colloquial speech amongst all generations, the pronunciation [spa.tə] is almost universal for собота in the sense of "Saturday", while "Sabbath" universally retains the older pronunciation [so.bo.tə]. The "спата" pronunciation originated as a hypercorrection, an attempt to remove a supposedly Russified pronunciation from the language (as the native Novegradian cognates of many Russian words with the CoCoC structure have a CCaC form). It has been further strengthened by the perceived connection with спати "sleep, rest", which is actually completely unrelated. The [so.bo.tə] pronunciation remains in use for all meanings in formal registers.
The month names are less transparent, deriving from older common Slavic names and describing nature.
- January - ледана lédana - from леде léde "ice"
- February - лутана lútana - from луте lúte "severe, fierce [frost]"
- March - сокана sókana - from соке sóke "tree sap"
- April - травана trávana - from трава tráva "grass"
- May - куѣтана kuě́tana - from куѣте kuě́te "bloom, color"
- June - цервена cérvena - from цервене cérvene "red"
- July - липена lípena - from липа lípa "lime (linden) tree"
- August - шерпана śérpana - from шерпе śérpe "sickle"
- September - врѣсана vrě́sana - from врѣсе vrě́se "heather"
- October - румѣна rumě́na - from румѣне rumě́ne "dark red"
- November - листопаде lístopade - from листе líste "leaf" and падати pádati "fall"
- December - снѣжена sně́źena - from снѣге sně́ge "snow"
25.2.2 Adverbs and Other Time Terminology
Novegradian has three words that can be translated as "now" in English:
- соѕаса sodzása or шеѕас śedzás - These two terms both mean "now, at this very moment". They are identical in meaning; the first is just native, the second is a Russian calque.
- тобирво tobírvo - This means "now" when something at present is being contrasted to something in the past. It is similar, though not identical to, the expression "and now" in English, in that it contrasts present and past.
- нинѣ níně - This is a much less focused equivalent of соѕаса or тобирво, meaning "nowadays" or "at present". While соѕаса points to a specific moment in time, нинѣ points to a span of time encompassing the present moment.
Соѕаса is a distortion of Common Slavic *sъ-čаsomь "with the hour", or possibly sь-čаsъ "this hour". Similar in origin are шеден śedén "today" and шеғод śeğód "this year".
Similar adverbs, except derived from the distal demonstrative *onъ, are ономедни onomédni "on that day" and ономеғоди onoméğodi "in that year", derived from Proto-Slavic *onomь-dьne and *onomь-godě, respectively. These may be used to refer to specific dates in the past or the future.
The adjective прошле próśle is used to mean "last" or previous": прошлое асто "last year". The adjective наступне nastúpne (pronounced [nə.'stu.ne]) is used to mean "next" or "following": наступное асто "next year". There is one adverb, љони łoní, meaning "last year", but its usage is somewhat marked.
"Tomorrow" is занок zánok, literally "behind the night". "The day after tomorrow" is нимзанок nimzánok, literally "past tomorrow".
"Yesterday" is вецераш véceraś, literally "[of/before] this [last] evening". "The day before yesterday" is нимецераш niméceraś, literally "past yesterday".
Although not frequently used, денеш denéś also means "today", generally in more poetic or archaic contexts. Similar is the adverb ногьеш nogjéś, meaning "tonight".
The adjectives "today's", "tomorrow's", and "yesterday's" are денеуне denéune, еутрене iéutrene, and вецерне vécerne respectively. These words are also the adjectival forms of "day", "morning", and "evening" respectively; that is, денеуне means both "today's" as well as "diurnal".
Novegradian has two words for "day". Дене déne refers to the period of daylight, or to a day on the calendar. Сутоки sútoki (which is always plural) refers to an astronomical day, including both day and night, or to a 24-hour period in general (eg, 18.00-18.00 is considered one period of сутоки).
There are also distinct words for "the day before/eve of" and "the day after": вигла vígla and заутра záutra respectively. The phrases "on the day before/eve of" and "on the day after" are written as a single word: вовиглу vovíglu, возаутру vozáutru. Unlike English "eve", these are fully productive and are not limited to certain holidays: яс пришеле домове возаутру сурвѣ iás prišéle domóve vozáutru survě́ "I arrived home the day after the blizzard". These prepositions may also be used alone as adverbs, where they can serve the useful function of distinguishing the narrative and absolute senses of "yesterday" and tomorrow". As adverbs, both are stressed on the first syllable: vóviglu and vózautru.
- Оне рѣѕиле то-це оне приѣздиле вецераш. Óne rědzíle tó-ce óne prijě́zdile véceraś. "He said that he arrived yesterday." (that is, he arrived the day before the present moment)
- Оне рѣѕиле то-це оне приѣздиле вовиглу. Óne rědzíle tó-ce óne prijě́zdile vóviglu. "He said that he arrived yesterday." (that is, he literally said "I arrived yesterday", meaning he arrived the day before he originally made this statement; this could perhaps more accurately be translated as "He said that he arrived the day before" as well)
25.2.3 Telling Time and Giving the Date
Whole hours are expressed using feminine ordinals in their definite form (due to the dropped word пора "hour"). One o'clock, however, is expressed as just пора rather than an ordinal. They will generally appear in the accusative case when describing when something happens, although the nominative case is used when just reading off time.
| (1) |
Соѕаса пора / другая / дежетая. (Sodzása porá / drugáia / deźétaia.) Now Ø hour-nom.sg / second-nom.sg.fem.def / tenth-nom.sg.fem.def "It's 1.00 / 2.00 / 10.00." |
Minutes are shown after the preposition со "with" in the dative-instrumental case: 6.20 шестая со дўудешитех śéstaia so dwudéśiteh, literally "the sixth with twenty". The minutes show feminine agreement, if needed, because of минута minúta.
Two special words for fractions of hours also exist—пољ pół "half" and цетуерте cetuérte "quarter". The latter may be placed after an hour much like the other minutes (тритей со цетуертем "3.15"). When either form is placed before the hour, the hour is put in the genitive case and the time is subtractive: пољ тритѣе "2.30", lit. "half of the third [hour]"). Пољ is always used subtractively like this. When a specific amount of minutes are used subtractively, the preposition со (this time meaning "from") is required, the hour again being in the genitive: дуадешити со шенмѣе "6.40", lit. "twenty [minutes] from the seventh [hour]".
This system is the most commonly used nowadays. It replaces an older system (still seen amongst the older generations or in rural areas) where times were based entirely on the following hour: тритѣе дешити trítěie déśiti "2.10" (lit. "of the third [hour] ten [minutes]", that is, ten minutes into the third hour of the day). This has become increasingly uncommon since the advent of digital clocks since the modern system allows for an almost literal and linear reading of the numbers off the display, rather than requiring mentally adding one to the hour number displayed. However, a few remnants remain in the common lexicon, particularly the expression of "half" as just discussed.
There are no real equivalents for "am" and "pm" as used in English. Instead, an adverb of time must be employed. Еутром iéutrom "in the morning" is used roughly from 5am to noon, денем dénem "in the daytime" from noon to 5pm, вецерем vécerem "in the evening" from 5pm until 11pm, and ногьюм nogjiúm "at night" from 11pm until 5am. Equivalent adverbs (eg, using the locative case instead) are also allowed. Alternatively, and perhaps more commonly, speakers may also give time according to a 24-hour clock.
The terms for "noon" and "midnight" are пољудна połudná "noon" and пољункьи półunkji, respectively. Both of these, however, are somewhat quirky in their declension. "Noon" is first declension in the singular and fourth declension in the plural. "Midnight" is always plural.
Dates are given using the genitive singular masculine definite form of an ordinal number (for "days") followed by the genitive singular of the month: дуадешит пирваево румѣнѣ "October 21st" (lit. "of the twenty-first [day] of October").
25.3 Dual Nouns
A small set of nouns in Novegradian retain a distinct and functional dual form. As described in sections 12.8 and 13.8, outside of frozen expressions the dual forms are only used after the numeral "two" or the modifier "both". Such nouns mostly describe paired body parts and clothing related to them. These twenty duals are shown in the table below, alongside with their nominative plural and genitive singular form for comparison. The three forms listed under "Dual Forms" are the Nom/Acc/Lat, Gen/Loc, and Dat/Instr, respectively.
| Nominative Singular | Meaning | Dual Forms | Nominative Plural | Genitive Singular |
| брев (brév) | eyebrow | бреве (bréve) бреву (brévu) бреума (bréuma) |
бреви (brévi) | брева (bréva) |
| гранди (grándi) | breast | гранди (grándi) грандю (grándiu) грандима (grándima) |
грандие (grándie) | гранди (grandí) |
| колѣно (kolě́no) | knee | колѣни (kolě́ni) колѣну (kolě́nu) колѣнома (kolěnóma) |
колѣна (kolěná) | колѣну (kolě́nu) |
| кригло (krigló) | wing | кригли (kriglí) криглу (kriglú) криглома (krígloma) |
кригла (kriglá) | криглу (kríglu) |
| ланкьо (lankjó) | hip | ланкьи (lánkji) ланкьу (lánkju) ланкьома (lankjóma) |
ланкьа (lankjá) | ланкьу (lánkju) |
| лохти (lóhti) | elbow | лохти (lóhti) лохтю (lóhtiu) лохтима (lóhtima) |
лохтие (lóhtie) | лохти (lohtí) |
| нерка (nérka) | kidney | неркѣ (nérkě) нерку (nérku) неркома (nerkóma) |
нерки (nérki) | неркѣ (nérkě) |
| нога (nogá) | foot, leg | ногѣ (nogě́) ногу (nogú) ногома (nógoma) |
ноги (nógi) | ногѣ (nogě́) |
| око (óko) | eye | оки (óki) оку (óku) огома (ogóma) |
ога (ogá) | оку (óku) |
| оху (óhu) | ear | охесе (óhese) охесу (óhesu) оесма (oiésma) |
охеси (óhesi) | охеса (óhesa) |
| осту (óstu) | lip | ости (ósti) осту (óstu) остома (ostóma) |
оста (ostá) | осту (óstu) |
| плегьо (plegjó) | shoulder | плекьи (plékji) плекьу (plékju) плегьома (plegjóma) |
плегьа (plegjá) | плекьу (plékju) |
| плукье (plúkje) | lung | плукьѣ (plúkjě) плукьу (plúkju) плугьема (plugjéma) |
плукьи (plúkji) | плукьа (plúkja) |
| понога (pónoga) | sock | поногѣ (pónogě) поногу (pónogu) поногома (ponógoma) |
поноги (pónogi) | поногѣ (pónogě) |
| порстаца (porstáca) | winter glove | порстацѣ (porstácě) порстацу (porstácu) порстаѕома (porstadzóma) |
порстаци (porstáci) | порстацѣ (porstácě) |
| роге (róge) | horn | рогѣ (rógě) рогу (rógu) рогема (rogéma) |
роги (rógi) | рога (róga) |
| рока (róka) | hand, arm | рокѣ (rókě) року (róku) рогома (rogóma) |
роки (róki) | рокѣ (rókě) |
| ругавица (rugávica) | work glove | ругавицѣ (rugávicě) ругавицу (rugávicu) ругавиѕома (rugavidzóma) |
ругавици (rugávici) | ругавицѣ (rugávicě) |
| сабоге (sabóge) | boot | сабогѣ (sabógě) сабогу (sabógu) сабогома (sabogéma) |
сабоги (sabógi) | сабога (sabóga) |
| ягодица (iágodica) | cheek | ягодицѣ (iágodicě) ягодицу (iágodicu) ягодиѕома (iagodidzóma) |
ягодици (iágodici) | ягодицѣ (iágodicě) |
25.4 Kinship
Following are the standard Novegradian kinship terms. In the formal language possessive pronouns are required to follow these nouns, and in the spoken language they all take possessive suffixes.
| Noun | Plural | 1Sg Poss. | Meaning | Notes |
| родители (rodíteli) | родители (rodíteli) | родителимо (rodítelimo) | parents | dl/pl only |
| тата (táta) | тати (táti) | татмо (tátmo) | father | |
| мати (máti) | матери (máteri) | матмо (mátmo) | mother | |
| мама (máma) | мами (mámi) | маммо (mámmo) | mother | less formal variant of мати |
| маже (máźe) | мажя (maźiá) | мажмо (máźmo) | husband | |
| жена (źená) | женьи (źénji) | женамо (źenámo) | wife | |
| дѣтинко (dě́tinko) | дѣдете (dědéte) | дѣдинмо (dědínmo) | child | borrows sg poss forms from дѣдин |
| дѣдин (dědín) | дѣдете (dědéte) | дѣдинмо (dědínmo) | child | same meaning as дѣтинко |
| син (sín) | синьа (sinjá) | синмо (sínmo) | son | |
| докьи (dókji) | докьери (dókjeri) | докьмо (dókjmo) | daughter | |
| брате (bráte) | бракьи (brákji) | братмо (brátmo) | brother | |
| шестра (śéstra) | шестри (śéstri) | шестрамо (śéstramo) | sister | |
| дѣда (dě́da) | дѣгьи (dě́gji) | дѣдмо (dě́dmo) | grandfather | |
| прадѣда (pradě́da) | прадѣгьи (pradě́gji) | прадѣдмо (pradě́dmo) | great grandfather | |
| баба (bába) | баби (bábi) | бабмо (bábmo) | grandmother | |
| прабаба (prabába) | прабаби (prabábi) | прабабмо (prabábmo) | great grandmother | |
| стриеце (strijéce) | стриеци (strijéci) | стриецмо (strijécmo) | paternal uncle | |
| оеце (óiece) | оеци (óieci) | оецмо (óiecmo) | maternal uncle | |
| дядя (diádia) | дядѣ (diádě) | дядмо (diádmo) | uncle | informal, substitutes for both of the above words |
| стрийка (stríjka) | стрийки (stríjki) | стрикмо (stríkmo) | paternal aunt | |
| тета (téta) | тети (téti) | тетмо (tétmo) | paternal aunt | informal |
| ойка (óika) | ойки (óiki) | окмо (ókmo) | maternal aunt | |
| наня (nánia) | нанѣ (náně) | нанмо (nánmo) | maternal aunt | informal |
| брадане (bradáne) | браданьи (bradánji) | браданмо (bradánmo) | male first cousin | |
| шестрѣна (śestrě́na) | шестрѣньи (śestrě́nji) | шестрѣнмо (sestrě́nmo) | female first cousin | |
| братеве син (bráteve sín) | братеви синьа (brátevi sinjá) | синмо братевей (sínmo brátevei) | nephew | literally "fraternal son" |
| шестрина докьи (śéstrina dókji) | шестрини докьери (śéstrini dókjeri) | докьмо шестриная (dókjmo śestrínaia) | niece | literally "sororal daughter" |
| внуке (vnúke) | внуци (vnúci) | внукмо (vnúkmo) | grandson | |
| праунуке (práunuke) | праунуци (praunúci) | праунукмо (práunukmo) | great-grandson | |
| внуцка (vnúcka) | внуцки (vnúcki) | внуцкамо (vnúckamo) | granddaughter | |
| праунуцка (práunucka) | праунуцки (práunucki) | праунуцкамо (práunuckamo) | great-granddaughter | |
| суекре (suékre) | суекри (suékri) | суекремо (suékremo) | husband's father, father-in-law | |
| тести (tésti) | тестие (téstie) | тестимо (téstimo) | wife's father, father-in-law | |
| суекруа (suékrua) | суекреви (suékrevi) | суекрамо (suékramo) | husband's mother, mother-in-law | |
| тешкьа (téśkja) | тешкьи (téśkji) | тешкьамо (téśkjamo) | wife's mother, mother-in-law | |
| жети (źéti) | жетие (źétie) | жетмо (źétmo) | husband's sister's husband, brother-in-law | |
| шурине (śúrine) | шуря (śuriá) | шуринмо (śúrinmo) | wife's brother, brother-in-law | |
| суате (suáte) | суакьи (suákji) | суатмо (suátmo) | wife's sister's husband, brother-in-law | |
| дѣвери (dě́veri) | дѣверие (dě́verie) | дѣвермо (dě́vermo) | husband's brother, brother-in-law | |
| етруа (iétrua) | етреви (iétrevi) | етрамо (iétramo) | husband's brother's wife, sister-in-law | |
| невѣста (nevě́sta) | невѣсти (nevě́sti) | невѣстамо (nevě́stamo) | wife's brother's wife, sister-in-law | |
| золуа (zólua) | золеви (zólevi) | золуамо (zóluamo) | husband's sister, sister-in-law | |
| суѣсти (suě́sti) | суѣстие (suě́stie) | суѣстимо (suě́stimo) | wife's sister, sister-in-law | |
| отѕиме (otdzíme) | отѕими (otdzími) | отѕиммо (otdzímo) | stepfather | |
| матерша (máterśa) | матерши (máterśi) | матершамо (máterśamo) | stepmother | |
| акосин (akosín) | акосиньа (akosinjá) | акосинмо (akosínmo) | stepson | |
| акодокьерша (akodókjerśa) | акодокьерши (akodókjerśi) | акодокьершамо (akodókjerśamo) | stepdaughter | |
In addition, the following terms, though not representing familial relations, also take possessive suffixes:
| Noun | Plural | 1Sg Poss. | Meaning | Notes |
| юнеце (iúnece) | юнеци (iúneci) | юнецмо (iúnecmo) | fiancé | |
| юница (iúnica) | юници (iúnici) | юницмо (iúnicmo) | fiancée | |
| друге (drúge) | дружи (drúźi) | другмо (drúgmo) | friend |
25.5 Punctuation
Novegradian uses mostly the same punctuation as English, although the rules governing their use differ slightly.
1. Full stop (.) - The full stop is used:
- To mark the end of a sentence making a statement.
- To mark the end of a sentence containing an indirect question.
- To mark abbreviations that are to be read in full (eg, г. for граде)
- To separate units when giving time: 12.30
- To group non-decimal numbers: 2.000.000 "two million".
2. Comma (,) - The comma is used:
- To represent a short pause in speech.
- To separate items in a list including more than two (and must before the и 'and'), or to separate clauses in a sentence consisting of more than two coordinated together.
- In parenthetical expressions, although very short ones often do not need the comma.
- To separate items in apposition, unless they are very short.
- To separate subordinate clauses from the primary clause (unless joined using то-ше).
- To separate non-restrictive relative clauses.
- Before contrasting conjunctions such as но and а.
- To separate decimal numbers from non-decimal numbers: 1,5 "one and a half".
3. Exclamation Mark (!) - The exclamation mark is used:
- At the end of a command, interjection, or emphatic statement.
- At the end of questions with extreme emotion. "?!", which is used in English, may not be used in Novegradian, so "What?!" would be rendered "Што!".
4. Question Mark (?) - The question mark is used:
- At the end of a sentence expressing a question (other than indirect questions).
- At the end of a sentence containing a tag question (eg, ..., нет прауда ли? "isn't that true?")
5. Colon (:) - The colon is used:
- Before a list introduced by an independent clause.
- Before a quotation introduced by an independent clause.
6. Semicolon (;) - Although uncommon, the semicolon may be used:
- To separate items in a large list, or a long series of coordinated phrases or clauses.
7. Hyphen (-) - The hyphen is used:
- To separate two elements of a compound that is not entirely viewed as a single word (eg, новеградеско-английске словенике "Novegradian-English dictionary").
- To join two adjectives together into a single word (eg, соцяљно-економицеске "socio-economic").
- To separate a prefix or inflection from a numeral or a word it may not be recognized on, especially foreign names (eg, 123-ом "123rd [dative-instrumental case]").
- To separate the topicalization marker то from the word it modifies.
8. Dash (–) - The dash is used:
- To substitute for a zero-form copula, although it may be dropped if there is no ambiguity.
- To substitute for another verb lost by ellipsis, although this too is optional (eg, Едене покренале подар деля друж, а еноке – нецево "One bought gifts for his friends, the other – nothing").
- To separate long appositives from the rest of the sentence, where it must be used on both sides of the clause.
9. Parentheses () - The parentheses are used:
- In parenthetical expressions.
Any punctuation appearing within the parentheses must be part of the parenthetical expression, not part of the main sentence, and vice versa.
10. Quotation Marks („‟) - The quotation marks are used:
- To mark quotations.
- To single out certain words or expressions.
- To name a noun (eg, гажета „Совѣшкьи‟ "The newspaper 'Sově́śkji'"). This is not used for people or places, however.
Novegradian uses „ (left-facing, on bottom) to begin a quote and ‟ (right-facing, on top) to end it. If there are not available, the guillements « » may be used. Using " ", as in English, is considered improper. Punctuation rules within quotations are the same as with parentheses—any punctuation within the quote must be part of the quote. Single quotation marks are never used.
11. Number Sign (№) - The number sign is used:
- Before a number qualifying something, but not counting it (eg, дом № 846 "House number 846"). This corresponds to the use of animate numerals when not counting animate nouns.