10.1 Sources of New Words
10.1.1 Creation
The most basic method of word creation is to create a new root from scratch. This is also one of the rarest methods, because new words are rarely made up without any prior base except for onomatopoeia - жиж źíź "buzz", яв iáv "woof", which can then be put through the same internal derivation processes any other roots can, yielding related forms such as жижати źiźáti "buzz" and явати iávati "yap, chatter".
If the onomatopoeia happens to have an appropriate phonetic structure, part of the word can be reanalyzed as an ending, the most common examples being in the babbling of babies - мама máma "mother" and тата táta "father", both of which have been reanalyzed as first declension nouns with the roots *мам- and *тат-.
10.1.2 Borrowing
As the speakers of Novegradian travelled and came in contact with speakers of other languages, they frequently borrowed commonly-used vocabulary, technical terminology, local names for unknown items and new inventions, and local idioms. Some of the primary sources for new loans include Russian, Finnish, Komi, Swedish, French, German, and English.
10.1.2.1 Russian and Other Slavic Languages
Of all the Slavic languages, Novegradian has had the most contact with Russian, and Russian still has significant usage in some parts of the Republic of Novegrad. When couplets appear, the Russian one usually has become more specialized in meaning, although it is not necessarily any more or less formal than the Novegradian equivalent. Common patterns in Russian loans is the pattern CoroC/ColoC/CereC/CeleC (where C represents any consonant) where Novegradian has CraC/ClaC/CreC/CleC, the use of Ё and Е where Novegradian and Е and Ѣ, and the presence of palatal consonants where Novegradian has none.
| Novegradian | Meaning | Russian loan | Meaning | |
| граде (gráde) | city | городе (górode) | downtown | |
| куѣте (kuě́te) | color | цуете (cuéte) | tint, shade | |
| гуѣзда (guě́zda) | star | зуезда (zuezdá) | shine, radiance | |
| плайкьи (pláikji) | cry | плакати (plákati) | mourn | |
| злате (zláte) | golden | золоте (zólote) | richly-decorated | |
| брѣге (brě́ge) | beach | береге (bérege) | shore | |
| кониге (kónige) | king | кеняжи (keniáźi) | prince |
Loans from other languages sometimes pass through Russian first. This is especially true of Church Slavonic, which Russian borrowed many religious terms from which were then in turn borrowed by Novegradian: воскрезати voskrezáti "resurrect", соборе sobóre "cathedral", Пасха Pashá "Pascha", вечерня večérnia "vespers", иконостасе ikonostáse "iconostasis".
10.1.2.2 The Uralic and Baltic Languages
As the Republic expanded, many speakers of local languages came under the rule of Novegrad and began an exchange of vocabulary. The primary contributors to Novegradian vocabulary have been Finnish, Karelian, and Komi, with more limited influence from Nenets, Saami, Estonian, Lithuanian, and Latvian.
The types of words borrowed tend to vary widely. From Karelian and Komi came a number of terms relating to hunting, fishing, and high-latitude forces, as well as many terms for natural phenomina. From Finnish came some of the same, as well as many terms for animals, plants, and nautical terminology. The Baltic languages were the source of some terms dealing with trade. In more recent years Komi and Finnish have once again become major contributors to colloquial speech.
| Komi Loans | |
| аття (attiá) "thanks" | баля (bália) "lamb" |
| вадя (vádia) "swamp" | кагае (kagáie) "pregnant" |
| куламе (kúlame) "net" | сутда (sutdá) "floor (of a house)" |
| шаскиле (śaskíle) "difficult" | травеше (travéśe) "useless labor" |
| цеве (céve) "empty field" | юва (iúva) "(drinking) water" |
| Finnish Loans | |
| вѣне (vě́ne) "boat" | каля (kália) "fish" |
| косеке (kóseke) "rapids" | лейра (léira) "camp" |
| мурайшеке (muráiśeke) "cloudberry" | нотё (nótio) "campfire, barbecue" |
| нѣда (ně́da) "marten" | пиғоке (piǧóke) "sap" |
| сарене (sárene) "(small) island" | хета (héta) "sand" |
10.1.2.3 French, German, and Swedish
The majority of loans from Swedish, German, and French entered Novegradian after 1600AD, and largely consist of technical and scientific terminology, as well as other words for things common in the West. French functioned briefly as a prestige language among the nobility in Novegrad, but not as many loans entered everyday language as in Russian. However, other French and German loans did enter Novegradian by way of Russian.
| French Loans | |
| аваря (avária) "accident" | адресе (adrése) "address" |
| гараже (garáźe) "garage" | демокрася (demokrásia) "democracy" |
| душе (dúśe) "shower" | езампла (iezámpla) "example" |
| едаже (iedáźe) "storey (building)" | каве (kavé) "café" |
| килограме (kilográme) "kilogram" | оранже (oránźe) "orange" |
| German Loans | |
| аутека (autéka) "pharmacy" | аутобусе (áutobuse) "bus" |
| генераље (generáłe) "general" | идѣя (idě́ia) "idea" |
| милидаре (milidáre) "military" | ругзаке (rugzáke) "backpack" |
| сољдате (sołdáte) "soldier" | танцати (tancáti) "dance" |
| турма (túrma) "tower" | универсидате (universidáte) "university" |
10.1.2.4 English
English has been the primary source of loans in the 20th century, mostly having to do with technology, food, and modern conveniences.
| English Loans | |
| вутбоље (vutbółe) "football" | еропорте (ieropórte) "aeroport" |
| интѣрнете (intěrnéte) "internet" | кове (kóve) "coffee" |
| командовати (komandováti) "command" | компютере (kompiútere) "computer" |
| радиё (rádijo) "radio" | рекорде (rekórde) "record" |
| такси (táksi) "taxi" | телевоне (televóne) "telephone" |
10.1.3 Calquing
Novegradians have long been proud of their language, and often have turned to calques or partial calques instead of loans when it is possible to decompose the foreign word. Many such cases have since become the only accepted forms, such as неборѣзе néborěze "skyscraper" or вуисопанти vuisopánti "highway" (both English calques). Others exist in free variation with the loan word, such as презуоне prezuóne "telephone" alongside телевоне televóne.
Doublets often form with terms of scientific studies, where both a foreign and native word exist, although the latter does not necessarily have to be a calque of the first.
| Native | Foreign | Meaning |
| лизиковѣденье (lizìkovědénje) | лингуистике (linguístike) | "linguistics" |
| живовѣденье (źìvovědénje) | биёлогя (bijológia) | "biology" |
| жемловѣденье (źemlovědénje) | геёлогя (geiológia) | "geology" |
| вѣровѣденье (věrovědénje) | теёлогя (teiológia) | "theology" |
10.1.4 Internal Derivation
Finally, the last method of word creation involves using the complex derivational morphology present in Novegradian. This is the primary method of vocabulary expansion and the focus of the rest of this section.
10.2 Suffixial Derivation
10.2.1 Nominalization
10.2.1.1 People from Nouns
Certain suffixes added to nouns indicate a person connected in some way to that noun, most often a resident (if a place) or a practitioner of a trade (if a noun connected to an occupation). These suffixes generally have both a masculine and feminine form, with the masculine one used for mixed or unknown groups.
The suffixes -еце -ece (masc.) or -ица -ica (fem.) attached to a place name indicate someone from that place. This is most frequently used with city names and indefinite geographic terms, and less commonly with country and region names.
| Word | Meaning | Person | Meaning | ||
| Новеграде Novegráde | Novegrad (city) | > | новеградеце/ица novegrádece/ica | Novegradian | |
| Москуа Moskuá | Moscow | > | московеце/ица moskóvece/ica | Muscovite | |
| шѣвере śě́vere | north | > | шѣвереце/ица śěvérece/ica | northerner | |
With country and region names, the suffix -ѣнинe -ě́nine (with the irregular declension, as described earlier) is used. It is highly productive and causes mutation in the consonant before the suffix, if possible. These forms are epicene, meaning they can agree with either gender as appropriate.
| Word | Meaning | Person | Meaning | ||
| Новеграде Novegráde | Novegrad | > | новеграгьѣнинe novegragjě́nine | Novegradian | |
| Норуегя Noruégia | Norway | > | норуежѣнинe norueźě́nine | Norwegian | |
| Англия Ánglija | England | > | англиѕѣнинe anglidzě́nine | English(man) | |
Adding -нике/-ника -nike/-nika, -аке/-ака -ake/-aka, -аре/-ара -are/-ara, or -цике/-цика -cike/-cika to a noun usually creates a practitioner of a trade related to the base.
| Word | Meaning | Person | Meaning | ||
| нига níga | book | > | нигаре/а nigáre(a) | bookkeeper | |
| такси táksi | taxi | > | таксияре/а taksijáre(a) | taxi driver | |
| месо méso | meat | > | меснике/а mésnike(a) | butcher | |
| политика polítika | politics | > | политинике/а politínike(a) | politician | |
| море móre | sea | > | мораке/а moráke(a) | sailor | |
| трамвае tramváie | streetcar | > | трамвайцике/а tramváicike(a) | streetcar worker | |
The suffix -еце/-ица -ece/-ica can also form professions from a tool.
| Word | Meaning | Person | Meaning | ||
| тоборе tobóre | axe | > | тобореце/ица tobórece(ica) | axeman | |
| стрѣла strělá | arrow | > | стрѣлеце/ица strěléce(íca) | archer | |
A profession may be formed from a compound noun denoting some sort of field ending in the gerundive -нье -nje by simply dropping that ending.
| Word | Meaning | Person | Meaning | ||
| жемловѣденье źemlovědénje | geology | > | жемловѣде/ица źemlově́de(ica) | geologist | |
| нигопизанье nìgopizánje | bookwriting | > | нигописе/ица nigopíse(ica) | bookwriter, author | |
The suffix -ица -ica may be used to form a feminine noun from a masculine noun with no feminine equivalent, usually foreign borrowings: ауторе autóre "author" > ауторица autórica.
Although not a native suffix, it should be noted that the agentive suffix -исте -iste forms its feminine counterpart with -иска -iska, the result of the simplification of an earlier *ист-ка: артисте artíste "(male) artist" > артиска artíska "female artist".
10.2.1.2 Nouns from Other Nouns
The suffixes -нике/-ника -nike/-nika can be used for inanimate objects as well, indicating something often used together with the base. -Нике is used when the base is masculine or neuter, and -ника if it is feminine.
| Word | Meaning | Noun | Meaning | ||
| цае cáie | tea | > | цайнике cáinike | teapot | |
| соли sóli | salt | > | солника sólnika | salt shaker | |
| гажета gaźéta | newspaper | > | гажетника gaźétnika | newspaper rack | |
| бенжине benźíne | gasoline | > | бенжиннике benźínnike | gas pump | |
The suffix -ина -ina has a singulative function, used to create singular nouns from collective nouns or nouns that otherwise lack a singular. It is in origin the feminine counterpart to -ине -ine, as is seen in the -ѣнинe -ě́nine suffix denoting nationality described earlier. It is also used fairly productively to make singular nouns out of collectives with the -ия -ija suffix, though note the spelling.
| Word | Meaning | Noun | Meaning | ||
| грахе gráhe | peas | > | грашина gráśina | pea | |
| луди lúdi | people | > | лудина lúdina | human being | |
| грозне grózne | grapes | > | грознина gróznina | grape | |
| бѣлия bělijá | sheets, linens | > | бѣлеина bě́ljina | sheet, linen | |
The suffix -естуо -estuo attached to a noun indicates "the state of being X" (cf English -hood, -ship) or "the organization composed of X" (cf -dom, -ment). If the noun ends in the suffix -ителе -ítele, it is replaced by the suffix -я -ia. Mutations can occur.
| Word | Meaning | Noun | Meaning | ||
| царе cáre | tsar | > | царестуо cárestuo | kingdom | |
| боғе bóğe | god | > | божестуо bóźestuo | godhood | |
| правителе pravítele | ruler | > | правястуо práviastuo | government | |
The suffixes -ике -ike (masc.), -ка -ka (fem.), and -ко -ko (neut.) are in origin diminutives that have acquired a new, fixed meaning. They keep the gender of the noun they were derived from. Mutations frequently occur. In addition, with the feminine and neuter endings only, any /o/ in the preceding syllable shifts to /a/.
| Word | Meaning | Noun | Meaning | ||
| граде gráde | city | > | градике grádike | town | |
| велке vélke | wolf | > | велцике vélcike | wolf pup | |
| гуѣзда guě́zda | star | > | гуѣжка guě́žka | bright light | |
| нига níga | book | > | нижка nížka | booklet | |
| море móre | sea | > | марко márko | bay | |
Some nouns lack a true plural form, and instead form their "plurals" using the collective suffix -ij(a). In Old Novegradian these collectives were grammatically singular and neuter, though in modern Novegradian are plural. Small vowel alterations can be triggered due to stress changes, as in the case of вагле "coal" below.
| Word | Meaning | Collective | Meaning | ||
| листе líste | leaf | > | листия listijá | leaves, foliage | |
| куѣте kuě́te | flower, color | > | куѣтия kuětijá | flowers | |
| дрѣво дрѣво | tree, wood | > | дрѣвия drěvijá | timber, lumber | |
| вагле vágle | (a) coal | > | вуглия vuglijá | coal | |
| каме káme | stone | > | камния kamnijá | stones | |
Some nouns have both a true plural and a collective plural, with slightly different meanings. Compare, for instance, plural листи "pages, sheets of paper" and collective листия "leaves, foliage".
| Word | Meaning | Plural Sense | Collective Sense | ||
| листе líste | leaf | > | pages, sheets | leaves, foliage | |
| куѣте kuě́te | flower, color | > | colors | flowers | |
| дрѣво дрѣво | tree, wood | > | trees | timber, lumber | |
| вагле vágle | (a) coal | > | (multiple) coals | coal | |
| каме káme | stone | > | (multiple, countable) stones | (uncountable) stones | |
The suffix -ишкьа added to fruits and vegetables mark a place where that fruit or vegetable is grown. It is limited to fruits well known in the Novegradian-speaking region for the last several hundred years; terms such as ананасишкьа ananásiśkja "pineapple plantation" tend to be ironic. Seemingly irregular forms such as яблонишкьа below actually derive from the name of the tree, rather than the name of the fruit (яблоньа iablónja "apple tree").
| Word | Meaning | Noun | Meaning | ||
| яблоко iábloko | apple | > | яблонишкьа iablóniśkja | apple orchard | |
| грозне grózne | grapes | > | грознишкьа grózniśkja | vineyard | |
| ягода iágoda | berry | > | ягодишкьа iágodiśkja | berry field | |
10.2.1.3 People from Adjectives
The suffixes -еце (masc.) and -ица (fem) are used to create words for people displaying the qualities of the base adjective.
| Word | Meaning | Person | Meaning | ||
| старе stáre | old | > | стареце/ица staréce/íca | old man/woman | |
| вайке váike | difficult, trying | > | вайгеце/ица vaigéce/íca | difficult person | |
| жољте žółte | yellow | > | жољтеце/ица źółtéce/íca | sickly person | |
| вайгове vaigóve | strong | > | вайговеце/ица vaigóvece/ica | strong person | |
The pejorative suffixes -охе/-оха -ohe/-oha and -ухеце/-уха -uhece/-uha are frequently used instead on bases with a negative connotation.
| Word | Meaning | Person | Meaning | ||
| старе stáre | old | > | старухеце/уха starúhece/úha | old coot | |
| дурне dúrne | foolish | > | дурнохе/оха durnóhe/óha | fool | |
10.2.1.4 Nouns from Adjectives
There are a number of endings for deriving abstract nouns from adjectives, each relating in some way to what the adjective is describing. The ending -ости/-ности -osti/-nosti is default.
| Word | Meaning | Noun | Meaning | ||
| бѣле bě́le | white | > | бѣлости bě́losti | whiteness | |
| шилне śílne | strong-willed | > | шилности śílnosti | strength | |
| красне krásne | beautiful | > | красности krásnosti | beauty | |
Note that when derived from an imperfective active participle, the participial ending -кь- becomes -т- (ie, depalatalizes) before the ending -ности: самостоекье samostoiékje "independent" (lit. "self-standing") > самостоетности samostoiétnosti "independence".
The suffix -ота -ota describes a physical aspect.
| Word | Meaning | Noun | Meaning | ||
| вуисе vuíse | high | > | вуизота vuizóta | height | |
| (при)глубе priglúbe | deep | > | глубота glubóta | depth | |
| тепле téple | warm | > | теплота teplóta | temperature | |
| преме préme | straight | > | примота primóta | straightness | |
The stressed ending -ия -ijá derives from an older collective form and means "a collection of things that are X" (or, less commonly, "thing that is X", though it remains morphologically plural).
| Word | Meaning | Noun | Meaning | ||
| бѣле bě́le | white | > | бѣлия bělijá | whites, sheets | |
| мал(ен)е maléne | small | > | малия malijá | meaningless trinkets | |
| близе blíze | close | > | близия blizijá | relatives | |
| остре óstre | sharp | > | острия ostrijá | blade, cutting edge (of a knife) | |
| страве stráve | healthy | > | стравия stravijá | health | |
| боғате boǧáte | wealthy | > | сбожия sboźijá | wealth | |
The last two of the above, страве and боғате, use the collective suffix to form a simple nominalization. These are historically compounds, the former related to дрѣво "tree" and the latter to боғе "God".
The suffixes -(о)те -(o)te (masculine), -ата -ata (feminine), and -ото -oto (neuter) form nouns that display the quality of the adjective, both animate and inanimate. They are derived from the adjective modifying a declining form of the old demonstrative то to "that" that have since been reanalyzed as regular nouns: красноте krásnote "handsome man", красната krásnata "beautiful woman".
10.2.1.5 People from Verbs
A person can be derived from a verb stem using the same sort of endings nouns use: -еце/-ица and (less commonly) -аре/-ара, as well as the suffixes -теле/-делика -tele/-délika and the more colloquial -исе/-иса -ise/-isa (from Komi).
| Word | Meaning | Person | Meaning | ||
| ледѣти ledě́ti | fly | > | ледеце/ица ledéce/íca | pilot | |
| торгати torgáti | sell | > | торгеце/ица torgéce/íca | trader | |
| ковати kóvati | forge | > | коваре/а kováre(a) | blacksmith | |
| оѕити odzíti | teach | > | оѕителе/делика odzítele/délika | teacher | |
| пизати pizáti | write | > | пизателе/делика pizátele/délika | writer | |
| пити píti | drink | > | пивисе(а) pívise(a) | frequent drinker (sl.) | |
10.2.1.6 Nouns from Verbs
Using a verb stem alone, with no ending, creates a noun associated with the verb, although what sort of nominalization varies dramatically. Both perfective and imperfective verbs may be used.
| Word | Meaning | Noun | Meaning | ||
| воходити vohodíti | go in | > | воходе vóhode | entrance | |
| видѣти víděti | see | > | виде víde | view | |
| овидѣти ovíděti | see (pf) | > | овиде óvide | glance | |
| вожитиvóźiti | transport | > | возе vóze | car | |
There is a tendency, though not an absolute one, to stress any verbal prefixes, such as о- above.
Resultatives are generally formed the same way, although can only be formed from perfective verbs. The endings theme vowel + -нье -nje or -ни -ni will sometimes be seen for collective resultatives, but are no longer productive.
| Word | Meaning | Noun | Meaning | ||
| напизати napizáti | write (pf) | > | написе nápise | letter, note | |
| пойскати poiskáti | search (pf) | > | поиске pójiske | search | |
| содати sodáti | give (pf) | > | содани sódani | tribute | |
A few nominalizations are simply irregular: лубити lubíti "love" > лубова lubóva "love", пѣти pě́ti > пѣшне pě́śne "song".
There are many suffixes used for turning a verb into an abstract noun. The most common is the gerundive -нье -nje (formed identically to the perfective participle, but with -нь- instead of -н-). Less common are -а -a and -ба -ba.
| Word | Meaning | Noun | Meaning | ||
| цидати cidáti | read | > | циданье cidánje | reading | |
| рѣѕити rědzíti | read aloud | > | рѣѕенье rědzénje | speech | |
| видѣти víděti | see | > | виденье vidénje | vision | |
| вѣсти vě́sti | know | > | вѣденье vědénje | knowledge | |
| бѣгати bě́gati | run | > | бѣга běgá | running, flight | |
| традити tradíti | lose | > | трада tradá | loss | |
| служити sluźíti | serve | > | служба slúźba | service | |
Verbs that form their perfective participles with -т- rather than -н- form gerundives with -кь- instead of -нь-: накрити nakríti "serve (a meal)" > накрикье nakríkje "course (of a meal)".
The suffix -ти -ti is a non-productive nominalizer historically related to the infinitive ending. Such nouns are often similar to or identical to the infinitives of the verbs from which they are derived.
| Word | Meaning | Noun | Meaning | ||
| вѣсти vě́sti | know | > | вѣсти vě́sti | piece of news | |
| владѣти vladě́ti | own, control | > | власти vlásti | authority, rule | |
| мерети meréti | die | > | сморти smórti | death | |
| пейкьи péikji | bake | > | пекьи pékji | oven | |
| помойкьи pomóikji | help | > | помокьи pómokji | help | |
The endings -оке -oke, -гло -glo, and -ане -áne turn a verb into some sort of tool or instrument used to perform that action. -Ане -ane also frequently derives nouns from other nouns.
| Word | Meaning | Noun | Meaning | ||
| рѣзати rězáti | cut | > | рѣзоке rězóke | saw, blade | |
| правити práviti | govern, rule | > | правигло práviglo | rule | |
| юва iúva | drinking water | > | юване iuváne | water bottle | |
The endings -иша -iśa and -ишкье -iśkje (neuter) mark the location where something takes place. The latter is limited to open spaces, but less common and not predictable.
| Word | Meaning | Noun | Meaning | ||
| класти klásti | bury | > | кладиша kládiśa | cemetary | |
| вуислати vuisláti | send forth | > | вуисланиша vuislániśa | embassy | |
| ледѣти ledě́ti | fly | > | ледиша lédiśa | airfield | |
| еграти iegráti | play | > | егришкье iegríśkje | playground | |
The suffix -лньа -lnja, added to the past-tense stem of a verb, is similar to the above, but most commonly derives names of rooms. If the past tense is irregular, generally this form will be irregular as well (cf. ѣдалньа below, past tense ѣгле)
| Word | Meaning | Noun | Meaning | ||
| кубати kubáti | bathe | > | кубалньа kubálnja | bathroom | |
| спати spáti | sleep | > | спалньа spálnja | bedroom | |
| (за)цегати (za)cegáti | wait for | > | цегалньа cegálnja | waiting room | |
| ѣсти iě́sti | eat | > | ѣдалньа iědálnja | dining room | |
10.2.1.7 Nouns from Phrases
The suffix -ка -ka is sometimes used to turn common multi-word expressions into a single noun. Such nouns tend to appear in the plural. Sometimes they are also limited to set expressions, as in the case of the second example below.
| Phrase | Meaning | Noun/Idiom | Meaning | ||
| не вѣм ne věm | I don't know | > | невѣмки nevěmki | I-don't-knows | |
| о мене o mené | I have | > | нет в оменекѣх nét v omenékěh | not on someone, not in someone's possession (lit. "not in the I-haves") | |
10.2.1.8 Diminutives and Pejoratives
Diminutives in Novegradian, as in other Slavic languages, are used frequently. However, their formation can be quite complicated.
The most basic suffixes are -ике -ike (masc), -ка -ka (fem), and -ко -ko (neut), preserving the original gender of the noun. These cause palatalization of the last consonant of the stem. If the vowel preceding the feminine or neuter endings is /o/, it becomes /a/ in the diminutive.
However, there are many alternative forms, to the point that any word can have multiple diminutive forms, sometimes even five or more. Frequent variants include reduplicating (-ишике, -ишка, -ишко) or even tripling (-ишицеке, -ишицка, -ишицко), an /n/ suffix (-ене, -ена, -ено), an /sʲ/ (-еше, -еша, -ешо), other vowel variants (-еке, -оке), and numerous combinations of the above.
Pejoratives are easier to form, though still not entirely regular. They are created using the suffixes -охе/-оха -ohe/-oha, -ахе/-аха -ahe/-aha, and -ухе/-уха -uhe/-uha. The suffixes do not correspond to gender. When used with a noun that ends in -еце/-ица, however, the pejorative must be placed before these agenitive suffixes.
Note that these forms are distinct from those used for personal names, although there is some overlap.
10.2.1.9 Foreign Suffixes
A number of foreign suffixes from Western European languages have entered Novegradian starting from around the 18th century, and have gained varying levels of productivity.
The most productive foreign suffix is -аця -acia or -ася -asia, equivalent to English -tion. The former was the original form (borrowed from German or Polish) and the latter a later one (borrowed from Swedish), though colloquially more and more nouns in -аця are switching to -ася, which better fits Novegradian phonotactics. Along with -аця is -изме -izme, equivalent to English -ism.
Less common suffixes include the agenitives -исте -iste (cf English -ist), -оре -ore (cf English -or), -аре -are (cf English -arian), and -аже -aźe (cf English -age, from French).
| Suffix | Example | Meaning |
| -аця | стаця stácia | station |
| -ася | инвормася invormásia | information |
| -изме | комунизме komunízme | communism |
| -исте | юристе iuríste | lawyer |
| -оре | емпираторе iempirátore | emperor |
| -аре | ветеринаре veterináre | veternarian |
| -аже | персонаже personáźe | personage |
10.2.2 Adjectivalization
10.2.2.1 Adjectives from Nouns
The two most common adjective types in Novegradian are those formed with the -н- -n- suffix and those formed with the -ск- -sk- suffix.
Н-suffix forms are usually relative (non-comparable), but can frequently be qualitative (comparable) as well. They generally mean 'possessing the qualities of X'. This and other suffixes are added to the noun stem, adding an epenthetic vowel if needed, and then adding normal adjective endings. The last consonant of the root is prone to mutation.
| Word | Meaning | Adjective | Meaning | ||
| велке vélke | wolf | > | велцене vélcene | lupine | |
| дрѣво drě́vo | tree, wood | > | дрѣвне drě́vne | wooden | |
| боғе bóğe | god | > | божне bóźne | god(like) | |
| граде gráde | city | > | гражне gráźne | urban | |
| стаље stáłe | steel | > | стаљне stáłne | steel | |
| нокьи nókji | night | > | нокьне nókjne | night(time) | |
The behavior of root-final /c/ before the adjectival -н- is somewhat complex. If it derives from an historical *kt, it remains /c/: нокьи nókji "night" (Common Slavic *noktь) > нокьне nókjne "night(time)". If it derives from an historical *tj, it becomes /t/: тишикьа tíśikja "thousand" (Common Slavic *tysętja) > тишитне tíśitne "thousandth". Root-final /ɟ/ always becomes /d/ since it always falls into this second class. The palatal fricatives /ç/ and /ʝ/ are unaffected, however.
Ск-suffix forms are almost always relative, and are used most often to turn a place name into an adjective. This is the most productive form of adjective derivation.
| Word | Meaning | Adjective | Meaning | ||
| Новеграде Novegráde | Novegrad | > | новеградеске novegrádeske | Novegradian | |
| Германя Germánia | Germany | > | германеске germáneske | German | |
| Кидае Kidáie | China | > | кидайске kidáiske | Chinese | |
| Англия Ánglija | England | > | английске anglíjske | English | |
| Нева Nevá | Neva (river) | > | неуске néuske | of the Neva | |
The suffixes -skei/-skoie/-skaia are often used in place names.
It is not always predictable what will happen to the final consonant or vowel of a noun when the -ск- suffix is added. This is highly dependent on both the ending of the noun and when the adjective form first appeared in the language.
For first declension nouns, there are two options. Most commonly, /e/ is inserted between the root and the suffix, with no palatalization: Вољга Vółga "Volga" > вољгеске vółgeske. Many other nouns, however, use the older suffix -ine-, again with no palatalization: Вишера Víśera "Viśera" > вишеринеске viśeríneske. This form is most common for adjectivalizing local place names. For this reason, overuse of -ine- tends to sound "rustic".
Second declension nouns, however, almost universally use -ine-: Вагря Vágria "Hungary" > огринеске ogríneske. Apparent exceptions, such as сумеске súmeske for "Finnish" when "Finland" is Сумя Súmia, are usually not directly related. In this case, the example is derived from an older name for Finland, Суме Súme.
Third and fourth declension nouns can basically be divided into three phases, based on when the adjective first came into use. The oldest words (roughly prior to 1100AD) generally add /e/ to the root and show no palatalization: Новеграде Novegráde "Novegrad" > новеградеске novegrádeske. Middle period nouns (roughly 1100 to 1800) use the /e/ suffix as well, but the root ends in /t d k g x/, they will generally palatalize: Цахя Cáhia "Czech [Republic]" > цашеске cáśeske. This is largely due to Russian and Church Slavonic influence. New period nouns (roughly post 1800) have returned to the original system of /e/ without palatalization: Ираке Iráke "Iraq" > иракеске irákeske.
Fifth declension nouns almost always use the /e/ suffix without palatalization: Дони Dóni "Denmark" > донеске dóneske. However, sometimes the connecting suffix is /i/, but this is rare and usually a regionalism.
There are no sixth declension nouns that take the -ск- suffix.
However, there are certain root-final consonants that trigger exceptions to the above rules, no matter the declension of the noun:
- /j/: Roots ending in /j/ have no connecting morpheme between the root and the -ск- suffix: Кидае Kidáie "China" > кидайске kidáiske.
- /ij/: Roots ending in /ij/ follow the same rule as above, but orthographic -ий- is usually just pronounced /i/ (or colloquially, /aj/): Англия Ánglija > английске anglíjske.
- /β/: Root-final /β/ almost always reduces to /w/ with no connecting morpheme: Нева Nevá > неуске néuske.
- /s/: Roots ending in /s/ generally have no connecting morpheme. Orthographic -сс- is pronounced simply as /s/: Пруся Prúsia "Prussia" > прусске prússke. There is some variation here, however: second declension nouns whose roots end in /s/ sometimes may still take -ine- (and прузинеске pruzíneske for "Prussian" may be seen in a number of place names).
A small set of nouns can take an adjective ending without any suffix (eg, злато zláto "gold" > злате zláte "golden"), but this is relatively uncommon unless there is some sort of prefix involved.
The endings -ов- -ov- and -оу-н- -oun-, derived from the old genitive ending still seen in the partitive plural, form relative adjectives (cf. English -ic, -al). Note that fourth declension bases will generally take -ев- -ev- and -еу-н- -eun- instead.
-ив- -iv- forms qualitative adjectives, and carries roughly the same meaning as English -ful. -аљ-н- -ałn- (from English -al) is generally only found in loanwords. -ице-ск- -icesk- and the reduced form -е-ск- -esk- used when the root ends in /s z ts dz/ derive from a combination of English -ic with the Slavic -sk-, but have since spread to almost any abstract noun ending in -(и)я by analogy, even if the English equivalent never had -ic (eg, "information" below).
| Word | Meaning | Adjective | Meaning | ||
| лизике lizíke | language | > | лизикеве lizíkeve | linguistic | |
| небесо nébeso | sky | > | небезоуне nebezóune | celestial | |
| вѣра vě́ra | faith | > | вѣриве věríve | faithful | |
| сцестия scestijá | luck | > | сцестиве scéstive | lucky | |
| центре céntre | center | > | центраљне centráłne | central | |
| хедерася hederásia | federation | > | хедераљне hederáłne | federal | |
| исторя istórja | history | > | историцеске istoríceske | historical | |
| инвормася invormásja | information | > | инвормасеске invormáseske | informative | |
The suffix -ив- -iv- is also used productively to derive adjectives from abstract nominals that end in -ости: милости mílosti "mercy" > милостиве milóstive "merciful, gracious".
The suffix -ист- -íst- means "full of", but more literally than -ив-. It is somewhat literary, however, having been more or less completely replaced by the prefix много- mnogo-, described later: гора góra "mountain" > гористе goríste "mountainous".
The suffixes -ат- -át- and -овит- -ovit- are a non-productive means of making adjectives out of concrete nominals. It is only found on a handful of words, such as роге róge "horn" > рогате rogáte "horned", or плоде plóde "fruit, offspring" > плодовите plodovíte "fruitful, currently producing a great quantity of fruit".
The suffix -оват- -ovát- weakens an adjective, meaning "rather X" or "X-ish": шинье śínje "blue" > шиньовате śinjováte "bluish".
The suffix -осн- -osn-, of Komi origin, means "covered/coated/spattered with X": крев krév "blood" > кревосне krevósne "blood-spattered", цервене cérvene "red" > цервеносне cervenósne "spotty red".
The suffix -ѣн- -ěn- means "made of", and is attached to bases of various materials: лене léne "flax" > ленѣне léněne "linen", мѣди mě́di "copper (n)" > мѣдѣне mě́děne "copper (adj)".
The suffix -ушн- -uśn- is a pejorative, forming adjectives with negative connotations from nouns. It is historically related to the nominal pejorative suffix -ух-, but can be applied to nouns that never take this suffix as well: холапе hólape "boy" > хлапушне hlapúśne "boyish", дѣвушка dě́vuśka "girl" > дѣвушне děvúśne "girlish", стареце stárece "old man" > старушне starúśne "senile", суиньа suínja "wild pig" > суиньушне suinjúśne "piggish".
The prefix бес- bes- means "without", much like the English suffix -less. Note that when it is added to adjectives with the -n- suffix, they generally tend to switch to the -ov-/-ev- suffix: соунце sóunce "sun" > солнецне solnécne "sunny" > бессоунцеве bessóunceve "sunless"; вѣтре vě́tre "wind" > вѣтрене vě́trene "windy" > бесвѣтреве besvě́treve "windless".
Many animals have two adjective forms, although their meanings are identical. The adjective endings are allowed to be added directly onto the root of the animal with a -j- intermediate (which is frequently absorbed by the consonant before it), so j-suffix and n-suffix animal terms will both be seen. The former were originally descended from true possessive adjectives, which have largely been lost as a productive force in Novegradian. Quite a few have become extremely irregular, such as тоце "avian" below (from Common Slavic *pъtъk-j-ъ). The j-suffix forms are increasingly rare outside of technical fields such as taxonomy or biology.
| Word | Meaning | Adjective | Meaning | ||
| велке vélke | wolf | > | велцене vélcene велце vélce |
lupine/wolf's | |
| каля kálja | fish | > | калиене káliene калие kálie |
piscine/fish's | |
| коша kóśa | fish | > | кошене kóśene кошие kóśie |
feline/cat's | |
| поска póska | bird | > | посцене póscene тоце tóce |
avian/bird's | |
10.2.2.2 Adjectives from Verbs
Adjectives can be derived from verbs, but generally not without the help of some sort of adjectival prefix. The verb root is isolated, the prefix added, and then this stem is otherwise treated as though it were a noun, using the same sort of endings (-ов-, -ив-, -н-). See the "Noun and Adjective Prefixes" section below for more information. The three verbal participles are also used to modify nouns, and do not require any sort of additional prefixes.
There is one exception, however, known as the "necessitive participle", though despite the name it is generally not viewed as a true participle by Indo-Europeanists. It is formed by adding the suffix -телне -telne to the infinitive stem. If the infinitive stem ends in /t d s z k g/ (ie, the infinitive ends in -сти -sti or -йкьи -ikji), then the suffix -ителне -ítelne is used, with palatalization of /k g/ to /ts dz/. These adjectives have the meaning "that must be Xed" for transitive verbs and "that must X" for intransitive verbs:
- рѣѕити rědzíti "say" > рѣѕителне rědzítelne "that must be said"
- видѣти víděti "see" > видѣтелне vidě́telne "that must be seen"
- жити źíti "live" > жителне źítelne "that must live"
- плайкьи plájkyi "cry" > плацителне placítelne "that must cry"
- класти klásti "bury" > кладителне kladítelne "that must be buried"
- исти ísti "go" > идителне idítelne "that must go"
When negated with the prefix не- ne-, the necessitive participle indicates improperness or impossibility:
- нерѣѕителне nerědzítelne "that must not be said"
- невидѣтелне nevidiě́telne "that must not be seen"
- нежителне neźítelne "that must not live"
- неплацителне neplacítelne "that must not cry"
- некладителне nekladítelne "that must not be buried"
- неидителне nejidítelne "that must not go"
The passive imperfective participle also has one additional idiomatic function. It can indicate possibility, much like the English suffix -able: видиме vidíme "visible", дадоме dádome "givable", etc.
10.2.2.3 Adjective Diminutives
Diminutive forms of adjectives also exist, which generally imply a sense of closeness or 'cuteness', and so are particularly common when speaking with children. They are formed using the suffixes -енк- -enk-, -инк- -ink-, -еник- -enik-, and -иник- -inik- attached to an adjectival stem. These diminutives cannot be used with adjectives already containing the suffixes -n- or -sk-, but are otherwise quite productive. Sometimes other suffixes are dropped when diminutive endings are added, as in сладоке below.
Some example diminutives:
| Word | Meaning | Diminutive | Meaning | ||
| добре dóbre | good | > | добренке dóbrenke | good | |
| сладоке sládoke | sweet | > | сладинке sládinke | sweet | |
| тољсте tółste | fat | > | тољстинике tołstiníke | chubby | |
10.2.2.4 Complex Adjectives
Novegradian makes use of a small set of "complex adjectives", two adjectives modifying a single noun that both decline, but are written as a single hyphenated word without any sort of conjunction, that take on new meanings separate from those of the two adjectives forming them. These include старе-младе stáre-mláde "of all ages" (lit. "old-young"), диляне-краске diliáne-kráske "of uneven length" (lit. "long-short"), шинье-цервене śínje-cérvene "multicolored" (lit. "blue-red"). The two adjectives composing each complex adjective are opposites or near-opposites, and the new form represents a variation everywhere in between the two.
10.2.3 Verbalization
Any part of speech can generally be converted into a verb by taking the root and treating that as a verbal root, then assigning it a conjugation class, theme vowel, etc. The first and second conjugations are used for most such derivations, although the third is often seen as well. If the root is in the second or third conjugation and ends in a consonant prone to mutation, that consonant will likely mutate due to analogy with other verbs, even if the root is foreign. For this reason, many foreign roots end up in the non-mutating first conjugation.
| Word | Meaning | Verb | Meaning | ||
| каля kália | fish (n) | > | каляти káliati | to fish | |
| душе dúśe | shower (n) | > | душити dúśiti | to shower | |
| крев krév | blood (n) | > | кревити kréviti | to bleed | |
| команда kománda | command (n) | > | командовати komandováti | to command | |
| заутроке záutroke | breakfast (n) | > | заутрогати zautrogáti | to eat breakfast | |
| цервене cérvene | red (adj) | > | цервенити cerveníti | to redden | |
| близе blíze | close (adj) | > | ближити bliźíti | to draw near | |
| плоне plóne | full (adj) | > | плонити ploníti | to fill | |
Simple verbalization can only be done with a handful of nouns, but is productive with many adjectives, albeit only qualitative ones. Most other verbalization requires some sort of prefix, which will be discussed later. The suffix -ov- in the first conjugation, however, is extremely productive for converting nouns into verbs, as in командовати komandováti above.
The suffix -изир- -izir- (from English -ize) acts similarly to -овати, but always has a causative and transformative sense. It is only used with foreign roots. The ending -изирати is third declension.
| Word | Meaning | Verb | Meaning | ||
| скандаље skándałe | scandal | > | скандаљизирати skàndałizírati | to scandalize | |
| Америка Amérika | America | > | американизирати amèrikanizírati | to americanize | |
| оспидаље ospidáłe | hospital | > | оспидаљизирати òspidałizírati | to hospitalize | |
There are a few general tendencies that can be noted with the conjugations that derived verbs are placed in. The second conjugation (with -i- as the infinitive thematic vowel), for example, tends to indicate some sort of transformation or causation (as in сухе súhe "dry" > сушити súśiti "dry, make dry"). The third conjugation ending -нати -nati, known as a "punctual", marks a single instanteous action, especially physical ones, such as крикнати kriknáti "shout (pf)" and метнати metnáti "hurl, strike (pf)". Nearly all verbs ending in -нати are perfective, since after all a single instantaneous action can't be progressive or prolonged.
There are also a few pairs of verbs affixes (namely -i-/-na- and -i-/-ě-) worth noting that no longer have productive force, but nevertheless are prominant.
A number of transitive second conjugation verbs (ie, having the suffix -i- in the infinitive) have intransitive counterparts with -na-: гашити gáśiti "extinguish, put out [eg, a flame]", гаснати gasnáti "go out"; меражити meráźiti "freeze (tr)", морзнати morznáti "freeze (intr), go numb"; миғцити miğcíti "soften (tr)", миғнати miğnáti "soften (intr), get soft".
Several causative verbs in -i- also have stative counterparts in -ě- (third conjugation). This is especially common with adjective bases: шиньити śinjíti "make blue", шиньѣти śinjě́ti "appear blue", желенити źeleníti "make green", желенѣти źeleně́ti "appear green, be envious".
Although these patterns are no longer productive, they have had sporadic influence on other verbs as a result of analogy. For example, the previous relationship has been applied to the verb омѣти omě́ti "know how to" to create the new verb омити omíti "teach how to".
10.2.4 Adverbialization
Novegradian, unlike many other Slavic languages, has a distinct adverbial form, formed from adjectives by adding -ѣ -ě to the stem. Many nouns in the dative-instrumental case may also take on an adverbial function. When dealing with adjectives derived from place names, the prefixed preposition на- na- must be added, or н- n- if it begins with a vowel.
| Word | Meaning | Adverb | Meaning | ||
| холадне hóladne | cold | > | холаднѣ hóladně | coldly | |
| добре dóbre | good | > | добрѣ dóbrě | well | |
| русске rússke | Russian | > | нарусскѣ narússkě | in the Russian way | |
| английске anglíjske | English | > | нанглийскѣ nanglíjskě | in the English way | |
| зле zlé | angry | > | злѣ zlě́ | angrily | |
| лѣтене lě́tene | summer | > | лѣтенем lě́tenem | during the summer | |
| вецере vécere | evening | > | вецерем vécerem | during the evening | |
10.3 Prefixial Derivation
10.3.1 Noun and Adjective Prefixes
The following prefixes are attached directly onto a noun or adjective to change the meaning, in much the same way noun and adjective prefixes work in English. Many adjectivizations require some sort of prefix related to the meaning - for example, приглубе priglúbe "deep" requires the prefix при-, meaning "touching" or "close to", the intention here being "close to the bottom"; *глубе alone has no meaning. Similarly, the prefixless *видеце (from "see" and the agentive suffix) is meaningless, but with a prefix, безвидеце bezvídece becomes "blind man" (without-see-agt). All of these prefixes are highly productive.
| Prefix | Meaning | Examples | Meaning | Root |
| без- (bez-) бес- (bes-) |
without | безвидеце (bezvídece) безцестове (bezcéstove) безнадегьове (beznadégjove) |
blind man dishonorable hopeless |
видѣти "see" цесне "honest" надегьа "hope" |
| в- (v-) во- (vo-) |
inside | воидрове (vojidróve) вовенне (vovénne) |
intranuclear intravenous |
идро "nucleus" вена "vein" |
| вмес- (vmes-) | between, among |
вмеснародне (vmesnaródne) вмессузѣдне (vmessuzě́dne) вмесоблостина (vmesoblóstina) |
international communal interregional highway |
народе "nation" сузѣде "neighbor" облости "region" |
| вон- (von-) вонѣ- (voně-) |
outside | вонѣклѣсцене (voněklě́scene) вонѣкрайске (voněkráiske) |
extracellular outside a country |
клѣска "cell" крае "edge" |
| до- (do-) | before, until |
доисторицеске (dojistoríceske) доплоне (doplóne) довоенне (dovoiénne) |
prehistoric full to the brim prewar |
исторя "history" плоне "full" военне "wartime" |
| за- (za-) | beyond, after |
загорне (zagórne) завоенне (zavoiénne) |
beyond the mountains postwar |
гора "mountain" военне "wartime" |
| кол- (kol-) кољ- (koł-) |
around | кољжемне (kołźémne) кољљунне (kołłúnne) |
circumterrestrial circumlunar |
жемя "land" љуна "moon" |
| много- (mnogo-) мно- (mno-) |
many, much |
многорне (mnogórne) многоворне (mnogovórne) многорокове (mnogorókove) |
mountainous talkative many-handed |
гора "mountain" говорити "talk" рока "hand" |
| на- (na-) | on top of | навоцнике (navócnike) нанижника (nakníźnika) настољне (nastółne) |
contact lens book cover desktop |
око "eye" нига "book" стоље "table" |
| над- (nad-) наз- (naz-) |
over | наджемне (nadźémne) назкадовуше (nazkadóvuśe) назгуѣздене (nazguě́zdene) |
overhead overseer heavenly (poet.) |
жемя "land" кадовуше "guard" гуѣзда "star" |
| не- (ne-) | not | невидне (nevídne) невовисяљне (nevovisiáłne) недобре (nedóbre) |
invisible unofficial not good |
видѣти "see" овисяљне "official" добре "good" |
| па- (pa-) | right before, immediately by, inferior to |
павобѣде (pavóběde) паежерия (paiéźerija) павецере (pavécere) пажемка (paźémka) пакусе (pákuse) павука (pávuka) |
brunch lakeshore twilight strawberry aftertaste pseudoscience |
обѣде "lunch" ежеро "lake" вецере "evening" жемя "land" (во)кусе "taste" (на)вука "science" |
| по- (po-) | along | побрѣжне (pobrě́źne) Поневия (Ponévija) |
coastal Neva region |
брѣге "coast" Нева "Neva River" |
| под- (pod-) поз- (poz-) |
under | подводне (podvódne) подюданьиве (podiudánjive) |
underwater below freezing |
вода "water" юданье "freezing" |
| пра- (pra-) | before, first |
прагуѣзда (praguě́zda) прагерманеске (pragermáneske) |
protostar proto-Germanic |
гуѣзда "star" германеске "German" |
| пре- (pre-) | across | прешибиреске (preśibíreske) преятлантицеске (preiatlantíceske) |
trans-Siberian trans-Atlantic |
Шибире "Siberia" атлантицеске "Atlantic" |
| при- (pri-) | close, toward |
примореске (primóreske) придоке (prítoke) притољке (prítołke) |
maritime tributary aftershock |
море "sea" токе "flow" тољке "tremor" |
| с- (s-) со- (so-) |
with, from |
соврѣменне (sovrě́menne) сауторе (sautóre) |
modern co-author |
врѣмено "time" ауторе "author" |
Whenever a prefix that must end in a vowel is added to a base that begins with a vowel, a prothetic consonant must be added to prevent hiatus. This is entirely dependent on the second vowel. If it is /a e i æ/, the consonant is /j/. If it is /o u ɨ/, the consonant is /β/. In the case of /e i æ u/, there is no visible orthographic change.
When a prefix is added to a root that has undergone the historical TorT or TolT sound change (thus having a modern Novegradian form CraC or ClaC, where "C" represents any consonant), the /a/ is shifted to /o/: граде gráde "city" > пригроде prígrode "suburb".
There are two other prefixes that appear in many common nouns, though are no longer productive: су-/са- su-/sa- and о(б)- o(b)-. The former derives from Proto-Slavic *sǫ-, so the vowel depends on the dominant stress pattern. It generally indicates some sort of connection, close relationship, or accompaniment: самраке sámrake "twilight" (from мраке "darkness, gloom"), сурва survá "blizzard" (from ровати rováti "tear up"), сутма sutmá "shadow" (from тема temá "darkness"), сужѣде suźě́de "neighbor" (from шѣдѣти śědě́ti "sit"). The latter (basically *ob-, but frequently reducing to just *o-) means "around". When it is prefixed to a word beginning in /β/, the /β/ always drops: власти vlásti "authority, rule" > облости óblosti "region, province". These words have largely been dissociated from their original bases.
When a numeral is prefixed to a noun or adjective, it appears in its genitive form minus any final consonants: довуногате dovunogáte "bipedal, two-legged". If the numeral does not decline, it is simply added as-is: столѣтия stolětijá "century, centennial". The numeral "one" always prefixes as an adjective (ie, as едно- iedno-). The same rules apply to the numeral пољ pół "half", which prefixed as пољу- połu-.
10.3.2 Place Names
There are four prefixes commonly used to form region names, all based on a more specific geographic term. All region names formed this way must take the collective suffix -ия -ija.
The prefix по- po- with a place name means "region along". It is particularly common with river names, but can also be used with other generic geographic features that are linear, such as "road" or "railroad". The prefix па- pa- is similar, but expresses a greater immediacy.
| Word | Meaning | Region Name | Meaning | ||
| Вољга Vółga | Volga River | > | Повољжия Povółźija Павољжия Pávołźija |
Volga region strip of land immediately along the Volga |
|
| Нева Nevá | Neva River | > | Поневия Ponévija Паневия Pánevija |
Neva region strip of land immediately along the Neva |
|
| далница dálnica | highway | > | падалниция pádalnicija | side of a highway | |
The prefix при- pri- does the same, but marks the area along a coastline.
| Word | Meaning | Region Name | Meaning | ||
| балтицеске baltíceske | Baltic (sea) | > | прибалтия pribáltija | Baltic states | |
| ежеро Ладожеское iéźero Ladoźeskóie | Lake Ladoga | > | приладожия priládoźija | Ladoga region | |
Под- pod- (or поз- poz- before plosive consonants) marks the region around a city.
| Word | Meaning | Region Name | Meaning | ||
| Новеграде Novegráde | Novegrad | > | подновеграгьия podnovegrágjija | Novegrad region | |
| Москуа Moskuá | Moscow | > | подмосковия podmoskóvija | Moscow region | |
| Лондоне Lóndone | London | > | подлондония podlóndonija | London region | |
10.3.3 Verb Prefixes
Verbs share many of the same prefixes nouns and adjectives use, although they function somewhat differently. Verbal prefixes in Novegradian are in many cases roughly equivalent to phrasal verbs in English, allowing a single verb root to spawn a wide variety of verbs. These prefixes are highly productive, especially for verbs of motion.
The prefixes from which the perfective form of a verb is chosen are the same as the derivational prefixes. Where по- may turn one verb perfective, for another it may be solely derivational.
Note, though, that all verbs created through prefixes are strictly speaking perfective. Most such verbs then back-derive an imperfective form using the suffix -ов-/-ав- -ov-/-av-: дати dáti (impf) > содати sodáti (pf); предати predáti (pf) > предавати predaváti (impf). Almost all back-derived imperfectives are first conjugation; the one exception is -давати, which is third.
A smaller set of verbs, all second conjugation, derive imperfective forms by shifting directly to the first conjugation without the aid of an overt suffix. If the root-final consonant can undergo palatalization, it will; in other words, /s(ʲ) z(ʲ) t d n p b m β/ > /ç ʝ c ɟ ɲ pl bl ml wl/, with some allowances for stress-related voicing. Examples: вуишити vuíśiti "raise" > вуиғьати vuiğjáti, прицинити priciníti "cause" > прициньати pricinjáti, соправити sopráviti > сопраулати sopráulati. In speech, however, these types of imperfectives are becoming increasingly uncommon.
| Prefix | Meaning | Examples | Meaning | Root |
| без- (bez-) бес- (bes-) |
removal | бесшилити (besśílite) безвѣрити (bezvě́riti) безоружити (bezoruźíti) |
weaken lose faith in disarm |
шила "strength" вѣрити "believe" оружия "weaponry" |
| в- (v-) во- (vo-) |
into | вокражити (vokráźiti) войсти (vóisti) влѣти (vlě́ti) |
encircle walk in instil |
краге "circle" исти "go, walk" лѣти "pour" |
| вуи- (vui-) | out | вуибѣйкьи (vuibě́ikji) вуижити (vuiźíti) вуикриѕати (vuikridzáti) |
run out survive shout out |
бѣйкьи "run" жити "live" криѕати "shout" |
| до- (do-) | up to | доцидати (docidáti) доѣcати (doiě́sati) догрѣти (dogrě́ti) |
read up to reach [a place] heat up |
цидати "read" ѣcати "go" грѣти "heat" |
| за- (za-) | behind, suddenly, begin |
зайсти (záisti) зашинати (zaśináti) затемнети (zatémneti) |
drop by fall asleep eclipse |
исти "go, walk" спати "sleep" темнети "darken" |
| на- (na-) | onto, excess |
найсти (náisti) наѣстиш (naiě́stiś) надумати (nadúmati) |
come upon, find eat one's fill think over |
исти "go, walk" ѣсти "eat" думати "think" |
| над- (nad-) наз- (naz-) |
add, over |
наздати (nazdáti) назпизати (nazpizáti) надсуѣдати (nadsuědáti) |
increase write over suggest as an alternative |
дати "give" пизати "write" суѣдати "suggest" |
| о- (o-) | away, up, around, transform |
обрати (obráti) одужити (oduźíti) оменѣти (omeně́ti) |
take away kill (poetic) grow wiser |
брати "bring" дужа "soul" менѣти "seem" |
| от- (ot-) ос- (os-) |
away, mistake |
осдати (osdáti) отеграти (otegráti) осцидати (oscidáti) |
answer win back misread |
дати "give" еграти "play" цидати "read" |
| па- (pá-) | not quite, by |
пагубити (págubiti) пажити (páźiti) пакормити (pákormiti) |
ruin pasture underfeed |
губити "destroy" жити "live" кормити "feed" |
| по- (po-) | begin, for a time |
поговорити (pogovoríti) побѣйкьи (pobě́ikji) полубити (polubíti) |
talk a bit run a bit fall in love |
говорити "talk" бѣйкьи "run" лубити "love" |
| под- (pod-) поз- (poz-) |
under, from under |
позпизати (pozpizáti) подмотрѣти (podmótrěti) подескоцити (podeskóciti) |
sign spy jump out |
пизати "write" мотрѣти "watch" скоцити "jump" |
| пре- (pre-) | through, between |
предумати (predúmati) предати (predáti) премирити (premíriti) |
ponder transmit cease-fire |
думати "think" дати "give" мирити "be peaceful" |
| пред- (pred-) през- (prez-) |
before | предвидѣти (predvíděti) предсудити (predsudíti) предрѣѕити (predrědzíti) |
foresee prejudge foretell |
видѣти "see" судити "judge" рѣѕити "say" |
| при- (pri-) | toward, connected to |
прийсти (príjsti) применѣти (priméněti) придумати (pridúmati) |
arrive remember think up |
исти "go, walk" менѣти "seem" думати "think" |
| про- (pro-) | through | пройсти (próisti) пропизати (propizáti) прослухѣти (proslúhěti) |
go through jot down not catch what someone says |
исти "go, walk" пизати "write" слухѣти "listen" |
| роз- (roz-) рос- (ros-) |
around, apart |
роздати (rozdáti) розлѣти (rozlě́ti) розиѣсти (roziě́sti) |
distribute flood erode, eat away |
дати "give" лѣти "pour" ѣсти "eat" |
| с- (s-) со- (so-) |
together, off |
собрати (sobráti) сойсти (sóisti) снести (snésti) |
gather get off bring down |
брати "bring" исти "go, walk" нести "carry" |
The interaction of the prefixes в(о)- v(o)- and с(о)- s(o)- with the verb root can be somewhat complex at times. Generally, the preferred prefixes are the vowelled forms во- and со-. However, before /l/ (and usually before /m n/, and irregularly before /r/), the vowel will drop: во + ливати > вливати vliváti "pour in, instil". Before /β/, the realization depends on stress. If the first syllable of the verb root is unstressed, then the vowelled prefixes are used: со + винити > совинити soviníti "pardon". If the first syllable of the verb root is stressed, then the vowel is dropped and the /β/ elides to /w/: со + вити > суити suíti "twist (perf)".
However, when deverbalized, the vowel may reappear even though it is absent in the verb: вложити vloźíti "invest" > вологе vóloge "investment". Sometimes both vowelless and vowelled derivatives exist with different semantics,
10.4 Compounds
Novegradian has two kinds of compounds - linked and unlinked, referring to whether or not there is a 'linking morpheme'. Both are very common, although the 'link' form is used more often in recent constructs.
10.4.1 Unlinked Compounds
Unlinked compounds are historically the earlier form of the two, although they are often seen in foreign loans or calques.
| Word 1 | Word 2 | Compound | ||
| навука (navúka) "science" | викся (víksia) "fiction" | > | навукавикся (navúkaviksia) "science fiction" | |
| желѣзо (źelě́zo) "iron" | панти (pánti) "route" | > | желѣзопанти (źelě̀zopánti) "railroad" | |
Taking a number in its genitive form and attaching it to an adjective is a common method of adjective creation: довуногате dòvunogáte "bipedal", дешитанлико dèśitángliko "decagon".
Many modern adverbs come from historical compounds, where what was originally a phrase became fused into a single unit:
- вноу vnóu "again" < во "in" + нов(е) "new"
- воверхѣ vovérhě "above (loc)" < во "in" + верхѣ "top (loc)"
- вонизѣ vonízě "below (loc)" < во "in" + низѣ "bottom (loc)"
- солѣва solě́va "from the left" < со "from" + лѣва "left (gen)"
- коправом koprávom "toward the right" < ко "toward" + правом "right (datins)"
- кетож ketóź "who (emph)" < кето "who" + же (an emphatic particle)
- анноб ánnob "if it were" < анно "if" + б(и) "be (subj)"
- шеден śedén "today" < ше "this" + дене "day"
- занок zánok < за "behind" + нокьи "night"
- вецераш véceraś "yesterday" < вецера "evening (gen)" + ш(ево) "this"
10.4.2 Linked Compounds
Linked compounds feature a fill vowel, most commonly /o/, separating the two components of the compound.
| Word 1 | Word 2 | Compound | ||
| рока (róka) "hand" | пизанье (pisánje) "writing" | > | рокопизанье (ròkopizánje) "handwriting" | |
| шѣвере (śě́vere) "north" | Америка (Amérika) "America" | > | Шѣверомерика (Śě̀veromérika) "North America" | |
When the second element is a verb, but the compound itself is not, the verb will appear as just the root alone.
| Word 1 | Word 2 | Compound | ||
| жемя (źémia) "land" | вѣсти (vě́sti) "know" | > | жемловѣде (źemlově́de) "geologist" | |
| вода (vóda) "water" | родити (róditi) "bear" | > | водороде (vodoróde) "hydrogen" | |
| вино (vinó) "wine" | лубити (lubíti) "love" | > | винолубе (vinolúbe) "wine connoisseur" | |