4.1 Features
Novegradian is a highly fusional inflecting language, meaning information tends to be densely packed in a relatively small set of affixes. A single suffix -м -m, for instance, may mark a verb as being in the present tense and as having a subject that is both first person and singular.
Like other Indo-European languages, verbs are conjugated through adding various affixes to a verb stem. All stems have an inherent conjugation class, which is arbitrary, but determines the types of endings it receives (for instance, the 1st and athematic conjugations mark the 1sg Present/Future with -м -m, while the 2nd and 3rd conjugations use -ун -un). Both prefixes (added before the stem) and suffixes (added after the stem) are used. Most verbs also have a theme vowel, which is largely connected to the conjugation class and appears immediately after the root in the present/future tense.
The stem consists of a root and zero or more derivational affixes. The root is the most basic unit providing semantic meaning to the verb. For many verbs, typically termed “primitive”, the stem and root are one and the same (e.g., *рѣѕ- *rědz- “say, read aloud”). Far more, however, include a derivational affix or formative, which slightly modifies the meaning of the root and therefore the stem as a whole (e.g., *о-рѣѕ- *o-rědz- “promise”); this type of stem is known as “derived”.
Many verbs actually have two stems, one known as the “infinitive stem” and the other as the “present/future stem”, and the two may have different theme vowels. All verb forms are predictably based on one of the two stems.
The majority of the verb forms to be described in this section are finite, meaning they convey tense/aspect/modality information. Such verbs conjugate in agreement with their grammatical subject, although the features marked vary across different verb forms; some forms agree with the subject’s person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd) and number (Singular, Dual, or Plural), while others agree in number and gender (Masculine, Feminine, or Neuter).
Independently of their environment, finite verbs mark two tenses (Past and a combined Present/Future), two primary aspects1 (Perfective and Imperfective), and three moods (Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative).
Non-finite verb forms lack tense and mood marking, although they maintain aspect. Two are pseudo-nominal (the Infinitive and the Supine), three are pseudo-adjectival (the three participles), and two are pseudo-adverbial (the two adverbial participles). The infinitive is considered the citation form of all Novegradian verbs; unless otherwise noted, verbs will be cited in their infinitive form throughout this text.
Stems are inherently transitive or intransitive. Change in valency typically involves a periphrastic construction, a derivational operation, or a change in voice, of which Novegradian has three: Active, Passive, and Middle. Some transitive verbs, however, allow for the direct object to simply be omitted or implied.
4.2 Verb Roots and Conjugations
Novegradian has four conjugations. Three of these are thematic—A, E, I—and one is athematic, although this last group only contains four verbs: буити buíti “be”, ѣсти iě́sti “eat”, вѣсти vě́sti “know”, and дати dáti “give”.2
Each verb only has a present/future and past tense formed through inflection, as well as several non-finite forms (the infinitive, supine, and participles). The perfective form of an imperfective verb is generally made by adding a prefix or using a suppletive verb.
A-Class verbs (first conjugation) tend to be quite regular, while I-class (second conjugation) and E-class (third conjugation) verbs are prone to consonant mutations in some forms.
Most native verb roots consist of only one syllable, sometimes two, or sometimes less than one. Individual verb stems can be stem-stressed, ending-stressed, or mobile-stressed. Stem-stressed verbs are always accented on the same syllable in the stem, and ending-stressed verbs on the first syllable after the stem. Mobile-stressed verbs are generally ending-stressed in the first person and stem-stressed elsewhere.
While the conjugation classes no longer have well-defined meanings, there are a few tendencies that can be observed, likely carryovers from Pre-Proto-Slavic or Proto-Indo-European:
- Almost all first conjugation verbs are imperfective, and the majority of imperfective verbs are first conjugation.
- Many verbs denoting sounds or derived from onomatopoeia are second conjugation and have -ѣ- as the infinitive theme vowel (or have an affricate or palatalized fricative + -а-, which historically comes from an earlier *ě): криѕати kridzáti “shout”, храпѣти hrápěti “snore”, шумѣти śumě́ti “be noisy”.
- The vast majority of second conjugation verbs with -ѣ- as the infinitive theme vowel are intransitive. Many have transitive historical counterparts with -и-, though sound changes predating Common Slavic have since obscured these pairs: горѣти gorě́ti “burn (intr)”, жарити źáriti “make jealous”3; родѣти rodě́ti “blush”4, рудити rudíti “embarrass”5.
- Third conjugation verbs that appear to have the infinitive theme vowel -ѣ- actually have the stative suffix -ѣй- -ěi-. These verbs are typically derived (fairly transparently) from nouns or adjectives and mean “be ADJ” or “have NOUN”: омѣти omě́ti “know how to” (from оме óme “intellect”). This subgroup was once far more common and productive, but it now consists only of a few relics.
- Third conjugation verbs with the suffix -н- (-на- in the infinitive) are always perfective. This suffix generally marks very abrupt actions or, when derived from adjectives, transformation. This suffix is sometimes called the “punctual”.
4.3 The Infinitive
The infinitive is formed from the verb stem using the suffix -ти -ti, or less commonly, -йкьи -ikji. This ending is never stressed.
However, there are a number of factors that make the infinitive more complex to form. Many, though not all verbs have a distinct ‘infinitive stem’, which differs slightly from the stem + thematic vowel used to form the present/future tense (the present/future stem).
First conjugation roots always have -a- as the infinitive theme vowel:
- *цид- → цидати cidáti “to read”
- *дѣл- → дѣлати dě́lati “to make, do”
Second conjugation roots may have either -ѣ- or -и-. Which of the two is needed cannot be predicted.
- *рѣѕ- → рѣѕити rědzíti “to say, read aloud”
- *луб- → лубити lubíti “to love”
- *вид- → видѣти víděti “to see”
In addition, -а- may be found if the root ends in an affricate, palatalized fricative or /j/:
- *держ- → держати derźáti “hold”
- *стой- → стояти stoiáti “stand”
Third conjugation roots may have any vowel except -ѣ- or -и- (with one exception: derivatives of *-доваити *-dovájiti “split in two”). -а- is always used when the root contains the punctual suffix -н-.
- *пиз- → пизати pizáti “to write”
- *наш-н- → нашнати naśnáti “to begin, start” (pf)
There are a number of additional roots, mostly in the second conjugation, that take no infinitive vowel whatsoever, such as *нес- → нести nésti “carry”. Other times the consonant must be changed in order to keep the cluster as simple as possible, as is the case for all four athematic verbs.
- *крад- → красти krásti “to steal”
- *ид- → исти ísti “to go, walk”
- *жив- → жити źíti “to live”
- *буид- → буити buíti “to be”
In жити, the /β/ of the root either assimilated completely with the /t/ or dropped entirely. Either way, the infinitive of жити now gives the appearance of a second conjugation verb because of the -i-, but this is technically part of the root, not a thematic vowel. Жити is actually third conjugation, as the form is underlyingly *жив-ти. The same is true of the athematic буити (← *буид-ти).
Finally, if the root ends in a velar plosive К or Г and there is no infinitive thematic vowel, the /kt gt/ clusters palatalize and become -кьи -kji. In addition, the vowel immediately preceding gains a /j/ off-glide.
- *пек- → пейкьи péikji “to bake”
- *плак- → плайкьи pláikji “to cry”
- *мог- → мойкьи móikji “to be able”
4.4 The Indicative Mood
4.4.1 The Formation of the Perfective
As mentioned before, the perfective is generally formed either with a prefix or with a suppletive verb form. A significant amount of simplification has taken place in the formation of the perfective when compared with other Slavic languages—Russian, for example, also employs theme vowel changes and suffixation, or combinations of multiple methods. While these are still used in Novegradian, in many instances they have switched to a purely prefixial system.
Prefixation is therefore by far the most common method. These prefixes are always derived from prepositions (although the prepositions they were derived from didn’t necessarily survive into modern Novegradian), usually ones that at one point had some sort of semantic connection with the root which has since been lost. Some of the more common prefixes include по- po- ‘confined to, along, by’, со- so- ‘with’, на- na- ‘on’, о- o- ‘at’, при- pri- ‘attached to’, за- za- ‘behind’, and про- pro- ‘through’. Examples, using some of the same roots as above:
- цидати → процидати procidáti “read”
- видѣти → овидѣти ovíděti “see”
- пизати → напизати napizáti “write”
Non-native verbs almost exclusively use по- and за-:
- гымати → загымати zagýmati “shout” (←Komi гым “thunder”)
- шецинити → пошецинити pośéciniti “surrender” (←Komi шедöдчыны “give oneself up”)
- сарнити → посарнити posarníti “ramble” (←Komi сöрны “lie”)
- бомбардовати → побомбардовати pobombardováti “bombard”
There are, however, exceptions:
- тилизовати tilizováti → отилизнати otiliznáti “use, utilize”
- економовати iekonomováti → сиекономити siekonómiti “econonomize, save”
Suppletive forms are also sometimes used to form the perfective. Oftentimes these are not true suppletives, but rather a variant of the same root that for some reason underwent a different phonological evolution, or when such forms are borrowed from another Slavic language, especially Russian. Examples include:
- наценати nacenáti ~ нашнати naśnáti “begin, start”
- брати bráti ~ женти źénti “bring” (cf. Common Slavic *brati, *vъzęti)
As can be seen above, the suffix -нати -náti, always third conjugation, also frequently forms perfectives.
4.4.2 The Present-Future Tense
4.4.2.1 The Regular Present/Future Tense
The Present/Future tense endings may be attached to both perfective and imperfective verbs. On perfective stems, they always indicate future action, while on imperfective stems they can indicate both present and future tenses. As with other Slavic languages, aspect is more fundamental than tense in Novegradian. There are two basic sets of present-future endings: 1sg in -un (the original thematic ending) and 1sg in -m (the original athematic ending which has since spread to the first conjugation).
The forms are demonstrated below with the verbs цидати “read”, рѣѕити “say, read aloud”, лубити “love”, and пизати “write” (present/future roots *цид-, *рѣѕ-, *луб-, and *пихь-). The first two are ending-stressed, the third mobile-stressed, and the last stem-stressed.
| A | I | I | E | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| цидати “read” |
рѣѕити “say” |
лубити “love” |
пизати “write” |
||
| 1Sg | яс | цид-ам cidám |
рѣѕ-ун rědzún |
лубл-ун lublún |
пихь-ун píhjun |
| 2Sg | ти | цид-аш cidáś |
рѣѕ-иш rědzíś |
луб-иш lúbiś |
пихь-еш píhjeś |
| 3Sg | оне | цид-аст cidást |
рѣѕ-ит rědzít |
луб-ит lúbit |
пихь-ет píhjet |
| 1Dl | надуа | цид-ава cidáva |
рѣѕ-ива rědzíva |
луб-ива lúbiva |
пихь-ева píhjeva |
| 2Dl | вадуа | цид-аста cidásta |
рѣѕ-ита rědzíta |
луб-ита lúbita |
пихь-ета píhjeta |
| 3Dl | ондуа | цид-аста cidásta |
рѣѕ-ита rědzíta |
луб-ита lúbita |
пихь-ета píhjeta |
| 1Pl | муи | цид-аме cidáme |
рѣѕ-им rědzím |
луб-им lúbim |
пихь-ем píhjem |
| 2Pl | вуи | цид-ате cidáte |
рѣѕ-ите rědzíte |
луб-ите lúbite |
пихь-ете píhjete |
| 3Pl | они | цид-ати cidáti |
рѣѕ-ат rědzát |
луб-ат lúbat |
пихь-ут píhjut |
Note that the 3sg ending in the first conjugation is pronounced /s/, not /st/ as the spelling would suggest. The final -т/-ти is also never pronounced in the 3pl forms: цидати [tsi.ˈda] “they read”, пихьут [ˈpi.çʊ] “they write”.
All of the above thematic forms are created using the pattern stem + thematic vowel + ending, except in the 1sg and 3pl, where the thematic vowel is dropped.
In the verbs лубити and пизати, the root-final consonants /z/ and /l/ undergo palatalizations to /ç/ and /bl/ in some forms. Such mutations are common in the second and third conjugations. Common present-tense mutations include:
- с, з, ш, ж → хь (пизати pizáti “write” → пихьун píhjun)
- з, ж → ғь (везати vezáti “tie, connect” → веғьун véğjun)
- т → кь (вратити vrátiti “return” → вракьун vrákjun)
- д → гь (видѣти víděti “see” → вигьун vígjun)
- н → нь (хранити hraníti “keep” → храньун hranjún)
- ст, ск → шкь (ескати ieskáti “search for” → ешкьун iéśkjun)
- зд, зг → жгь (ѣздити iě́zditi “go by vehicle” → ѣжгьун iě́źgjun)
- г → ж (мойкьи móikji → можун móźun)
- к → ц (плайкьи pláikji → плацун plácun)
In some verbs, such as вратити, видѣти, хранити, ескати, and ѣздити above, these alterations occur only in the first person singular. In addition to the above, the following changes may occur in the 1sg only:
- п, б, в, м → пл, бл, ўл, мл (лубити lubíti → лублун lublún)
There is no clear way to know for certain whether a verb root will have a palatalization in all forms, only in the 1sg, or in no forms, without looking at the history. Palatalizations in all forms arise from an historical /j/ element in the root, no longer visible. In the 1sg, it derives from a palatalization caused by the ending. No palatalization occurs when a root entered the language after the distintegration of Common Slavic, unless it later gained one by analogy, or if the verb was borrowed with all of its irregularities from Russian or acquired gradation from a Uralic language. There is, however, a tendency in Novegradian to generalize all but the labial palatalizations to all forms (e.g., мойкьи “be able”, which now has g → ź in all forms though it originated in only the 1sg). Colloquial speech shows considerably more generalization than the standard.
4.4.2.2 Irregularities in the Present-Future Tense
Within the second and third conjugations, there are many minor verb classes involving a suffix that appears and disappears or with vanishing epenthetic vowels. These create the most problematic irregularities to learn, as the rules can be complex and the set of verbs they apply to often are rather small. However, since each describes a number of verbs, they cannot be considered one-of-a-kind irregularities, but must rather be regarded as minor subclasses of third conjugation verbs.
- First conjugation verbs with -ova- suffix:
The -ova- suffix is a common means by which imperfective verbs are derived from perfective verbs (see Derivational Morphology and Word Creation section 10.3.3). In general usage in the modern language, verbs with such a suffix behave as regular first conjugation verbs. However, in more archaic or poetic language, these verbs actually behave as part of the third conjugation and conjugate irregularly. In the present tense, the suffix -ova- becomes -ui-. It is important to note, however, that this is no longer the case in the modern standard language.
The -ui- suffix is always stressed.
| кѣловати kělováti “kiss” (impf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | кѣл-у-юн kělúiun |
1Dl | кѣл-у-ева kělúieva |
1Pl | кѣл-у-ем kělúiem |
| 2Sg | кѣл-у-еш kělúieś |
2Dl | кѣл-у-ета kělúieta |
2Pl | кѣл-у-ете kělúiete |
| 3Sg | кѣл-у-ет kělúiet |
3Dl | кѣл-у-ета kělúieta |
3Pl | кѣл-у-ют kělúiut |
There are a few verbs, such as ковати kóvati “forge”, that retain -ui- in the present tense, but nowadays take first conjugation endings.
| ковати kóvati “forge” (impf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | к-у-ям kúiam |
1Dl | к-у-ява kúiava |
1Pl | к-у-яме kúiame |
| 2Sg | к-у-яш kúiaś |
2Dl | к-у-яcта kúiasta |
2Pl | к-у-яте kúiate |
| 3Sg | к-у-яст kúiast |
3Dl | к-у-яста kúiasta |
3Pl | к-у-яти kúiati |
- Third conjugation verbs with -а- in the infinitive:
Third conjugation verbs with -a- in the infinitive always undergo a consonant mutation in all forms (if possible), and never have mobile stress in the present/future tense. Пизати pizáti “write” above is one example, a stem-stressed verb. Медати medáti “cast, throw, hurl” is another, an ending-stressed verb.
| медати medáti “cast, throw, hurl” (impf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | мегь-ун megjún |
1Dl | мегь-ева megjéva |
1Pl | мегь-ем megjém |
| 2Sg | мегь-еш megjéś |
2Dl | мегь-ета megjéta |
2Pl | мегь-ете megjéte |
| 3Sg | мегь-ет megjét |
3Dl | мегь-ета megjéta |
3Pl | мегь-ут megjút |
- Second and Third conjugation verbs with -e- in the infinitive:
Second and Third conjugation verbs with -e- (or, very rarely, -ě-) as the infinitive vowel are the result of an early metathesis in Old Novegradian. For example, прети préti “support” comes from Common Slavic *perti, whose present/future stem was *pьr-. The result is an ending-stressed verb that appears to gain a vowel in the present tense not present in the infinitive. Note that прети was originally third conjugation, but is now second.
| прети préti “support, hold up” (impf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | пер-ун perún |
1Dl | пер-ива períva |
1Pl | пер-им perím |
| 2Sg | пер-иш períś |
2Dl | пер-ита períta |
2Pl | пер-ите períte |
| 3Sg | пер-ит perít |
3Dl | пер-ита períta |
3Pl | пер-ат perát |
Мерети meréti “die, stop working” (pf), which is third conjugation, is also a member of this class. However, the expected infinitive *мрети is never found because an epenthetic /e/ was inserted to prevent the /mr/- cluster. The verb therefore appears to be completely regular, although it is always ending-stressed.
A few other verbs appear to have /e ~ æ/ as their infinitive vowel, but in fact do not. Старѣти starě́ti “age”, for example, is underlyingly *старѣйти. Радеети radéieti “enjoy” has the similar root *радей-, but does not appear as *радети because it is a more recent loan from Komi радейтны. Because the /j/ was present in the original Komi verb, an attempt is made to preserve it in the Novegradian infinitive as well by inserting an epenthetic /e/.
- Third conjugation verbs with vanishing -a- in the infinitive:
This class of verbs is similar to the above in that there is an additional vowel found in the present/future stem not seen in the infinitive. This class, however, includes more verbs than the above, and the extra vowel in the present tense is not as predictable, since it can be either /e/ (from CS *ь) or /o/ (from CS *ъ). There are never any mutations seen in these verbs.
| брати bráti “take, bring” (impf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | бер-ун berún |
1Dl | бер-ева beréva |
1Pl | бер-ем berém |
| 2Sg | бер-еш beréś |
2Dl | бер-ета beréta |
2Pl | бер-ете beréte |
| 3Sg | бер-ет berét |
3Dl | бер-ета beréta |
3Pl | бер-ут berút |
| слати sláti “send, dispatch” (impf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | сол-ун solún |
1Dl | сол-ева soléva |
1Pl | сол-ем solém |
| 2Sg | сол-еш soléś |
2Dl | сол-ета soléta |
2Pl | сол-ете soléte |
| 3Sg | сол-ет solét |
3Dl | сол-ета soléta |
3Pl | сол-ут solút |
Here too the epenthetic vowel may be preserved in the infinitive as well in some verbs: жедати źedáti “crave”, логати logáti “lie, tell lies” (but compare Russian cognates ждать “wait”, лгать “lie”). These infinitive vowels will drop when prefixes are added, so an illegal cluster is no longer formed: солгати solgáti “lie” (pf). The verb зуати zuáti “call” becomes зовун zovún, etc, in the present tense, as the /zw/ originates from an older /zβ/.
- Third conjugation verbs with -ava- suffix:
The very rare -ava- suffix becomes -ai- in the present/future tense. Such verbs are ending-stressed. This special class consists only of the verb давати daváti “give (impf)” and its derivatives; its common usage has caused it to retain the /j/~/β/ alternation that Novegradian has otherwise nearly completely eliminated.
| вуидавати vuidaváti “give out, issue” (impf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | вуида-юн vuidaiún |
1Dl | вуида-ева vuidaiéva |
1Pl | вуида-ем vuidaiém |
| 2Sg | вуида-еш vuidaiéś |
2Dl | вуида-ета vuidaiéta |
2Pl | вуида-ете vuidaiéte |
| 3Sg | вуида-ет vuidaiét |
3Dl | вуида-ета vuidaiéta |
3Pl | вуида-ют vuidaiút |
- Third conjugation verbs with -n- suffix:
Stems containing the punctual suffix -n- are conjugated the same way other third conjugation roots are, as though the -n- were part of the root. The only difference is that such roots are always ending-stressed.
With нашнати naśnáti “begin, start (pf)”:
| нашнати naśnáti “begin, start” (pf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | наш-н-ун naśnún |
1Dl | наш-н-ева naśnéva |
1Pl | наш-н-ем naśném |
| 2Sg | наш-н-еш naśnéś |
2Dl | наш-н-ета naśnéta |
2Pl | наш-н-ете naśnéte |
| 3Sg | наш-н-ет naśnét |
3Dl | наш-н-ета naśnéta |
3Pl | наш-н-ут naśnút |
The verb дѣти dě́ti “place, misplace (pf)” acquires this same -n- in the present-future tense despite not showing the suffix in any other form. This was done simply to augment the weak root *děi-.
| дѣти dě́ti “place, misplace” (pf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | дѣ-н-ун děnún |
1Dl | дѣ-н-ева děnéva |
1Pl | дѣ-н-ем děném |
| 2Sg | дѣ-н-еш děnéś |
2Dl | дѣ-н-ета děnéta |
2Pl | дѣ-н-ете děnéte |
| 3Sg | дѣ-н-ет děnét |
3Dl | дѣ-н-ета děnéta |
3Pl | дѣ-н-ут děnút |
- Third conjugation verbs with root-final /β/:
Root-final /β/ is lost in the infinitive, but appears in the present/future. Such verbs are ending-stressed.
| жити źíti “live” (impf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | жив-ун źivún |
1Dl | жив-ева źivéva |
1Pl | жив-ем źivém |
| 2Sg | жив-еш źivéś |
2Dl | жив-ета źivéta |
2Pl | жив-ете źivéte |
| 3Sg | жив-ет źivét |
3Dl | жив-ета źivéta |
3Pl | жив-ут źivút |
Sometimes a minor vowel change can be involved, as in плути plúti “swim, float” → пловун plovún.
- Third conjugation verbs with root-final /n/:
Root-final /n/ verbs function the same way as root-final /β/ verbs, except that they are stem-stressed.
| стати státi “become” (impf/pf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | стан-ун stánun |
1Dl | стан-е-ва stáneva |
1Pl | стан-е-м stánem |
| 2Sg | стан-е-ш stáneś |
2Dl | стан-е-та stáneta |
2Pl | стан-е-те stánete |
| 3Sg | стан-е-т stánet |
3Dl | стан-е-та stáneta |
3Pl | стан-ут stánut |
- Third conjugation verbs with root-final consonantal /j/:
Root-final /j/ functions the same way as above, although this process is less transparent due to the lack of a distinct grapheme for /j/. Such verbs are stem-stressed.
| оскрити oskríti “open” (pf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | ос-кри-юн oskrijún |
1Dl | ос-кри-е-ва oskríjeva |
1Pl | ос-кри-е-м oskríjem |
| 2Sg | ос-кри-е-ш oskríjeś |
2Dl | ос-кри-е-та oskríjeta |
2Pl | ос-кри-е-те oskríjete |
| 3Sg | ос-кри-е-т oskríjet |
3Dl | ос-кри-е-та oskríjeta |
3Pl | ос-кри-ют oskríjut |
- Third conjugation verbs with root-final vocalizing /j/:
Verbs with a vocalizing /j/ display a consonantal /j/ in the present/future tense, but an /i/ in the infinitive. Note, though, that in both cases the /j ~ i/ is graphically <и> (except in the 1sg and 3pl forms of the present/future).
| пити píti “drink” (impf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | п-юн piún |
1Dl | пи-е-ва piéva |
1Pl | пи-е-м piém |
| 2Sg | пи-е-ш piéś |
2Dl | пи-е-та piéta |
2Pl | пи-е-те piéte |
| 3Sg | пи-е-т piét |
3Dl | пи-е-та piéta |
3Pl | п-ют piút |
- Third conjugation verbs with root-final /t/ or /d/:
Root-final /t/ and /d/ appear as /s/ in the infinitive, but appear normally in the present/future. These verbs are ending-stressed.
| исти ísti “go, walk” (det) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | ид-ун idún |
1Dl | ид-е-ва idéva |
1Pl | ид-е-м idém |
| 2Sg | ид-е-ш idéś |
2Dl | ид-е-та idéta |
2Pl | ид-е-те idéte |
| 3Sg | ид-е-т idét |
3Dl | ид-е-та idéta |
3Pl | ид-ут idút |
- Third conjugation verbs with root-final /s/ or /z/:
Root-final /s/ and /z/ are shown in the infinitive, with no theme vowel separating the root from the infinitive ending. In the present/future tense they are regular and ending-stressed.
| везти vézti “drive, transport” (det) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | вез-ун vezún |
1Dl | вез-е-ва vezéva |
1Pl | вез-е-м vezém |
| 2Sg | вез-е-ш vezéś |
2Dl | вез-е-та vezéta |
2Pl | вез-е-те vezéte |
| 3Sg | вез-е-т vezét |
3Dl | вез-е-та vezéta |
3Pl | вез-ут vezút |
- Third conjugation verbs with root-final /k/ or /g/:
Verbs with root-final /k/ or /g/, in addition to having their own infinitive ending -йкьи, tend to undergo mutations in all present tense forms. There are only a few exceptions. They can be either stem-stressed or ending-stressed.
| плайкьи pláikji “cry” (impf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | плац-ун plácun |
1Dl | плац-е-ва pláceva |
1Pl | плац-е-м plácem |
| 2Sg | плац-е-ш pláceś |
2Dl | плац-е-та pláceta |
2Pl | плац-е-те plácete |
| 3Sg | плац-е-т plácet |
3Dl | плац-е-та pláceta |
3Pl | плац-ут plácut |
4.4.2.3 Athematic Verbs in the Present-Future Tense
The four athematic verbs use endings similar to the first conjugation. Root-final consonants may drop when they come in contact with a vowelless ending.
| Athematic Verbs | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Verb | буити “be” | ѣсти “eat” | вѣсти “know” | дати “give” | |
| Root | *ес- | *ѣд- | *вѣд- | *дад- | |
| 1Sg | яс | ес-м iésm |
ѣ-м iě́m |
вѣ-м vě́m |
да-м dám |
| 2Sg | ти | е-жи ieźí |
ѣ-жи iěźí |
вѣ-жи věźí |
да-жи daźí |
| 3Sg | оне | ес-т iést |
ѣ-ст iě́st |
вѣ-ст vě́st |
да-ст dást |
| 1Dl | надуа | ес-уа iésua |
ѣ-ва iě́va |
вѣ-ва vě́va |
да-ва dáva |
| 2Dl | вадуа | ес-та iésta |
ѣс-та iě́sta |
вѣс-та vě́sta |
дас-та dásta |
| 3Dl | ондуа | ес-та iésta |
ѣс-та iě́sta |
вѣс-та vě́sta |
дас-та dásta |
| 1Pl | муи | ес-ме iésme |
ѣ-ме iě́me |
вѣ-ме vě́me |
да-ме dáme |
| 2Pl | вуи | ес-те iéste |
ѣс-те iě́ste |
вѣс-те vě́ste |
дас-те dáste |
| 3Pl | они | ес-ат iésat |
ѣд-ит iě́dit |
вѣд-ит vě́dit |
дад-ит dádit |
Notice how the full verb root is only visible in the 3pl form of each verb. Before /t/ root-final *d weakens to /s/, and before /m s β/ it drops entirely. The root-final *s of буити has fewer problems with other consonants, and in fact in the 1dl form it remains intact before the suffixed -va (which weakens to -ua).
Unlike most other Slavic languages, the 3pl form of буити is no longer completely irregular. As late as the 18th century it was still pronounced сат sát, but the prefixed ie- was added to bring it more in line with the other forms.
The spellings for a number of the athematic forms are outdated, reflecting older pronunciations. Есм iésm “I am” is usually pronounced [ˈjɛ.smɪ] (formally) or [ˈjɛm] (commonly). The forms ending in -ст are pronounced with just the /s/ (so ест iést “it is” is [ˈjɛs], etc). The athematic 3pl ending -ит is pronounced [ə], the result of есат’s ending being generalized to replace an ending that seemed too similar to third person singular of many thematic verbs: вѣдит “they know” [ˈβæ.də].
The present tense forms of буити are infrequently used in modern Novegradian except to add emphasis or improve prosody, although in written Novegradian the third person forms ест, еста, and есат are used more frequently. These forms are also still used (in speech as well) to indicate “there is/are”. The 3sg and 3pl forms also have shortened clitic variants, е ié and су sú. The only time all of the present tense forms of буити must be used is in its special negative form, with a prefixed н-: несм, неси, нет, несуа, нета, нета, несме, несте, несат nésm, nési, nét, nésua, néta, néta, nésme, néste, nésat. No other verb has such negative forms. The /s/ has been lost in the 3sg and 3dl forms (and by analogy in the 2dl, which always uses the same form as the 3dl). Historically this elision resulting in compensatory lengthening of the previous vowel, giving the third person forms нѣт ně́t and нѣта ně́ta, as well as нѣсат ně́sat by analogy; however, these forms are rarely used nowadays.
4.4.2.4 Irregular Verbs
Although most ‘irregular’ verbs fit in one of the previously mentioned classes, there are a few that do not. These are simply irregular.
These irregularities are generally minor, involving only an unexpected vowel or consonant change.6
| Irregular Verbs | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Verb | данти dánti “blow” |
женти źénti “take, bring” |
лити líti “deprive” |
муити muíti “wash” |
пюти piúti “spit” |
сати sáti “suck” |
смиятиш smijátiś “laugh” |
|
| 1Sg | яс | домун domún |
вожмун voźmún |
лихьун líhjun |
миеюн miéiun |
плуюн plúiun |
созам sozám |
смѣюш směiúś |
| 2Sg | ти | домеш doméś |
вожмеш voźméś |
лихьиш líhjiś |
миееш miéieś |
плуеш plúieś |
созаш sozáś |
смѣешши směiéśśi |
| 3Sg | оне | домет domét |
вожмет voźmét |
лихьит líhjit |
миеет miéiet |
плует plúiet |
созаст sozást |
смѣеци směiéci |
| 1Dl | надуа | домева doméva |
вожмева voźméva |
лихьива líhjiva |
миеева miéieva |
плуева plúieva |
созава sozáva |
смѣеваш směiévaś |
| 2Dl | вадуа | домета dométa |
вожмета voźméta |
лихьита líhjita |
миеета miéieta |
плуета plúieta |
созаста sozásta |
смѣеташ směiétaś |
| 3Dl | ондуа | домета dométa |
вожмета voźméta |
лихьита líhjita |
миеета miéieta |
плуета plúieta |
созаста sozásta |
смѣеташ směiétaś |
| 1Pl | муи | домем domém |
вожмем voźmém |
лихьим líhjim |
миеем miéiem |
плуем plúiem |
созаме sozáme |
смѣемши směiémśi |
| 2Pl | вуи | домете dométe |
вожмете voźméte |
лихьите líhjite |
миеете miéiete |
плуете plúiete |
созате sozáte |
смѣетеш směiéteś |
| 3Pl | они | домут domút |
вожмут voźmút |
лихьат líhjat |
миеют miéiut |
плуют plúiut |
созати sozáti |
смѣеюци směiúci |
| Irregular Verbs | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Verb | спати spáti “sleep” |
тлейкьи tléikji “shove” |
хотѣти hótěti “want” |
цисти císti “count” |
шѣсти śě́sti “sit down” |
ѣсати iě́sati “go by vehicle” |
|
| 1Sg | яс | соплун soplún |
тољкун tołkún |
хокьун hókjun |
цедун cedún |
шедун śédun |
ѣдун iě́dun |
| 2Sg | ти | спиш spíś |
тољкеш tołkéś |
хокьеш hókjeś |
цедеш cedéś |
шедеш śédeś |
ѣдеш iě́deś |
| 3Sg | оне | спит spít |
тољкет tołkét |
хокьет hókjet |
цедет cedét |
шедет śédet |
ѣдет iě́det |
| 1Dl | надуа | спива spíva |
тољкева tołkéva |
хокьева hókjeva |
цедева cedéva |
шедева śédeva |
ѣдева iě́deva |
| 2Dl | вадуа | спита spíta |
тољкета tołkéta |
хокьета hókjeta |
цедета cedéta |
шедета śédeta |
ѣдета iě́deta |
| 3Dl | ондуа | спита spíta |
тољкета tołkéta |
хокьета hókjeta |
цедета cedéta |
шедета śédeta |
ѣдета iě́deta |
| 1Pl | муи | спим spím |
тољкем tołkém |
хокьем hókjem |
цедем cedém |
шедем śédem |
ѣдем iě́dem |
| 2Pl | вуи | спите spíte |
тољкете tołkéte |
хокьете hókjete |
цедете cedéte |
шедете śédete |
ѣдете iě́dete |
| 3Pl | они | спат spát |
тољкут tołkút |
хокьат hókjat |
цедут cedút |
шедут śédut |
ѣдут iě́dut |
4.4.3 The Past Tense
4.4.3.1 The Regular Past Tense
The Novegradian past tense, for both perfective and imperfective verbs, derives from the Common Slavic L-participle, which has been reanalyzed as a verbal form rather than an adjective. Due to its origins, it displays agreement for gender in place of person. It is formed from the same stem as the infinitive (not the present/future tense), plus -l-, plus an ending. As such, the past form can oftentimes be created by dropping the -ти of the infinitive and replacing with with -л-. As in the infinitive, the present/future or conjugation theme vowel is not indicated. Stress is generally on the same syllable as on the infinitive, which is not always the same as in the present/future.
| A | I | E | |
|---|---|---|---|
| цидати “read” |
рѣѕити “say” |
пизати “write” |
|
| Masc Sg | цида-л-е cidále |
рѣѕи-л-е rědzíle |
пиза-л-е pizále |
| Fem Sg | цида-л-а cidála |
рѣѕи-л-а rědzíla |
пиза-л-а pizála |
| Neut Sg | цида-л-о cidálo |
рѣѕи-л-о rědzílo |
пиза-л-о pizálo |
| Dl | цида-л-ѣ cidálě |
рѣѕи-л-ѣ rědzílě |
пиза-л-ѣ pizálě |
| Pl | цида-л-и cidáli |
рѣѕи-л-и rědzíli |
пиза-л-и pizáli |
The dual and plural forms of most verbs merge in speech, since unstressed final -ѣ is pronounced the same as -и. However, the distinction is maintained in a few irregular verbs which have ending stress in the past tense.
Stress for virtually all verbs in the past tense (even irregular ones) always remains on the same syllable, unless the stem is only one syllable long, in which case the stress will shift to the ending in the feminine singular form. This happens in both thematic and athematic verbs:
| Stress-Shifting Verbs in the Past Tense | ||
|---|---|---|
| жити “live” |
буити “be” |
|
| Masc Sg | жи-л-е źíle |
буи-л-е buíle |
| Fem Sg | жи-л-а źilá |
буи-л-а builá |
| Neut Sg | жи-л-о źílo |
буи-л-о buílo |
| Dl | жи-л-ѣ źílě |
буи-л-ѣ buílě |
| Pl | жи-л-и źíli |
буи-л-и buíli |
4.4.3.2 Irregularities in the Past Tense
Because the past tense stem is the same as the infinitive stem, the many minor verb classes mentioned earlier in the present/future tense are of almost no concern. Except for verbs whose infinitives end in -сти, -зти, or -йкьи, the past tense can be formed regularly from the infinitive.
| Past Tense Forms | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infinitive | кѣловати kělováti |
ковати kóvati |
медати medáti |
прети préti |
брати bráti |
нашнати naśnáti |
жити źíti |
пити píti |
спати spáti |
| Past Stem | кѣловал- kěloval- |
ковал- koval- |
медал- medal- |
прел- prel- |
брал- bral- |
нашнал- naśnal- |
жил- źil- |
пил- pil- |
спал- spal- |
When the infinitive stem ends in /t/ or /d/, both of which will always appear as с s, it is usually dropped when the verb is conjugated in the past tense.
| Past Tense Forms of Verbs with Stem-Final /t d/ | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Infinitive | цисти císti “count” |
куисти kuísti “bloom” |
красти krásti “steal” |
| Past Stem | цил- cil- |
куил- kuil- |
крал- kral- |
If the infinitive stem ends in /s z/ or a velar plosive (i.e., the infinitive ends in -зти, -йкьи, or sometimes -сти), the consonant is not dropped, and the past tense suffix -л- is added immediately after that consonant. The /j/ off-glide seen in the velar stems is dropped.
| Past Tense Forms of Verbs with Stem-Final /s z k g/ | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Infinitive | плайкьи pláikji “cry” |
мойкьи móikji “be able” |
везти vézti “transport” |
| Masc Sg | плакле plákle |
могле mógle |
везле vézle |
| Fem Sg | плакла plaklá |
могла moglá |
везла vezlá |
| Neut Sg | плакло pláklo |
могло móglo |
везло vézlo |
| Dl | плаклѣ pláklě |
моглѣ móglě |
везлѣ vézlě |
| Pl | плакли plákli |
могли mógli |
везли vézli |
There are, however, a number of verbs whose infinitive stems end in /d/ that, rather than having it disappear, instead convert it to /g/ and conjugate like the verbs above. In Old Novegradian, all d-final verbs conjugated this way, but there has been a significant degree of regularization. Most notably, three of the athematic verbs show this pattern:
| Athematic Verbs in the Past Tense | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Infinitive | ѣсти iě́sti “eat” |
вѣсти vě́sti “know” |
дати dáti “give” |
| Masc Sg | ѣгле iě́gle |
вѣгле vě́gle |
дагле dágle |
| Fem Sg | ѣгла iěglá |
вѣгла věglá |
дагла daglá |
| Neut Sg | ѣгло iě́glo |
вѣгло vě́glo |
дагло dáglo |
| Dl | ѣглѣ iě́glě |
вѣглѣ vě́glě |
даглѣ dáglě |
| Pl | ѣгли iě́gli |
вѣгли vě́gli |
дагли dágli |
In speech it is common to pronounce this -г- as a fricative /γ/ in some or all forms. Older speakers only have this /γ/ when the syllable immediately before the -г- is stressed (eg, да[γ]ле “I/you/he gave”, but да[g]ла “I/you/she gave”). Younger speaks frequently have /γ/ in all forms.
4.4.3.3 Irregular Verbs in the Past Tense
A very small set of verbs have an irregular past tense, with a pattern not shared by any other verbs except for their own derivative forms. They are исти ísti “go, walk”, шѣсти śě́sti “sit down”, гейкьи géikji “burn”, данти dánti “blow”, женти źénti “take”, and тайти táiti “conceal, harbor”.
| Irregular Past Tense Verbs | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infinitive | исти “go, walk” |
шѣсти “sit down” |
гейкьи “burn” |
данти “blow” |
женти “take” |
тайти “conceal” |
| Masc Sg | шле ślé |
шале śále |
ғегле ğégle |
дале dále |
желе źéle |
тале tále |
| Fem Sg | шла ślá |
шала śalá |
ғегла ğeglá |
дала dála |
жела źéla |
тайла tailá |
| Neut Sg | шло śló |
шало śálo |
ғегло ğegló |
дало dálo |
жело źélo |
тайло táilo |
| Dl | шлѣ ślě́ |
шалѣ śálě |
ғеглѣ ğeglě́ |
далѣ dálě |
желѣ źélě |
тайлѣ táilě |
| Pl | шли ślí |
шали śáli |
ғегли ğeglí |
дали dáli |
жели źéli |
тайли táili |
The past tense of исти is suppletive, based on *ш(ед)-, a root originally meaning something along the lines of “step”.
The vowel change in шѣсти is likely the result of contamination (since the vowels of this verb were already irregular in Common Slavic due to an additional nasal element inherited from PIE). The exact origin is not certain.
The ғ found in the past tense of гейкьи is the result of dissimilation from the following /g/. Due to palatalization rules, however, it is actually even more irregular than it appears. The masculine singular ғегле is pronounced [ˈjɛ.glɛ], with a [j], while all other forms have [γ] ([γɛ.ˈgla], [γɛ.ˈglo], etc).
Both данти and женти originally had nasal vowels in their infinitive and past tense stems (Common Slavic *dǫlъ, *vъzęlъ), which uncoupled into /an en/ in the infinitive but not in the past tense. Note also that these verbs, despite being one syllable long, do not display the stress shift in the feminine singular.
Тайти just sees the root-final /j/ lost in the masculine singular likely due to dialect contamination. The masculine singular ending was once very weak, and the lack of ending prompted loss of /j/ as /jl/ was illegal at the end of a word. It reappears in all other forms.
4.4.4 The Analytic Future Tenses
The two analytic future tenses both require the use of the future tense of буити “be” as an auxiliary verb. Буити is the only verb in Novegradian with a true, distinct future tense. It is formed by adding the regular third conjugation present/future endings onto the stem *бад- *bad-.
The simple future, which only imperfective verbs can have, is formed using the future form of “be” followed by the infinitive. With цидати “read”:
| цидати cidáti “read” (impf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | бадун цидати bádun cidáti |
1Dl | бадева цидати bádeva cidáti |
1Pl | бадем цидати bádem cidáti |
| 2Sg | бадеш цидати bádeś cidáti |
2Dl | бадета цидати bádeta cidáti |
2Pl | бадете цидати bádete cidáti |
| 3Sg | бадет цидати bádet cidáti |
3Dl | бадета цидати bádeta cidáti |
3Pl | бадут цидати bádut cidáti |
However, the simple future of “be” is always бадун, бадеш, etc, never **бадун буити.
The future tense form of “be” combined with a past tense verb, the L-form of either a perfective or imperfective verb, forms the future hypothetical tense. With рѣѕити “say, read aloud”:
| рѣѕити rědzíti “say, read aloud” (impf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | бадун рѣѕиле bádun rědzíle |
1Dl | бадева рѣѕилѣ bádeva rědzílě |
1Pl | бадем рѣѕили bádem rědzíli |
| 2Sg | бадеш рѣѕиле bádeś rědzíle |
2Dl | бадета рѣѕилѣ bádeta rědzílě |
2Pl | бадете рѣѕили bádete rědzíli |
| 3Sg | бадет рѣѕиле bádet rědzíle |
3Dl | бадета рѣѕилѣ bádeta rědzílě |
3Pl | бадут рѣѕили bádut rědzíli |
The singular forms will all conjugate to agree in gender, as in the past tense. Unlike in the simple future, the form бадун буиле is allowed.
4.4.5 Verbs of Motion
Verbs of motion form a special class in Novegradian, like in other Slavic languages, as instead of a two-way distinction of perfective-imperfective, there is a three-way distinction where the imperfective is divided into determinate and indeterminate forms. Unlike the other Slavic languages, however, the perfective of verbs of motion is falling out of use. In modern Novegradian, it is almost never used in the past tense and only finds use to indicate the future. The perfective is always formed by adding the prefix по- po- to the determinate form. The indeterminate is formed from a separate root, though usually related somehow to the determinate root.
Such triplets include (det ~ pf ~ indet):
- исти ísti ~ пойсти póisti ~ ходити hóditi “go, walk”
- ѣcати iě́sati ~ поѣcати poiě́sati ~ ѣздити iě́zditi “go, travel, go by vehicle”
- бѣйкьи bě́ikji ~ побѣйкьи pobě́ikji ~ бѣгати bě́gati “run”
- ледѣти ledě́ti ~ поледѣти poledě́ti ~ лидати lidáti “fly”
- плути plúti ~ поплути poplúti ~ плавити pláviti “swim, sail, float”
- нести nésti ~ понести ponésti ~ ношити nóśiti “carry”
- везти vézti ~ повезти povézti ~ вожити vóźiti “transport”
- лѣзти lě́zti ~ полѣзти polě́zti ~ лажити láźiti “climb”
- тяйкьи tiáikji ~ потяйкьи potiáikji ~ ташкьити táśkjiti “pull, haul”
- брести brésti ~ побрести pobrésti ~ бродити brodíti “walk on an unstable surface”
For conjugation and irregularity information, see the lexicon.
The last two examples, тяйкьи ~ ташкьити and брести ~ бродити, were not inherited pairs, but rather ones that were reanalyzed and became ones in Novegradian (compare unpaired Russian тянуть ~ тащить, брести ~ бродить).
The use of the pairs исти ~ ходити, ѣсати ~ ѣздити, and брести ~ бродити is explained later, in section 11.6.7.
Another interesting feature of the two imperfective forms of all verbs of motion is how easily they take locative and directional prefixes. Novegradian features a sort of ‘preposition agreement’: войсти во... “to go into...” (literally ‘in-go in’). The most common locomotive prefixes are:
| Prefix | Meaning | исти “go” | нести “carry” |
|---|---|---|---|
| в-, во- v-, vo- |
“into” | войсти “go into” |
вонести “carry in” |
| до- do- |
“to, reaching” | дойсти “go to” |
донести “carry to” |
| за- za- |
“suddenly, quickly” | зайсти “visit, drop by” |
занести “bring over” |
| о- o- |
“out of, from” | ойсти “leave” |
онести “carry away” |
| при- pri- |
“toward” | прийсти “arrive” |
принести “fetch, bring” |
| про- pro- |
“through” | пройсти “go via” |
пронести “carry through” |
4.5 The Subjunctive Mood
The Novegradian subjunctive is an analytic construction formed from the past tense L- form of a verb and a special form of буити “be”, a fossilized aorist. Only three aorist forms remain: the singular, dual, and plural. As with the past tense and future hypthetical, the L-form verb agrees in gender and number with its subject. With цидати “read” (and a masculine subject):
| цидати cidáti “read” (impf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | цидале би cidále bi |
1Dl | цидалѣ бис cidálě bis |
1Pl | цидали бу cidáli bu |
| 2Sg | цидале би cidále bi |
2Dl | цидалѣ бис cidálě bis |
2Pl | цидали бу cidáli bu |
| 3Sg | цидале би cidále bi |
3Dl | цидалѣ бис cidálě bis |
3Pl | цидали бу cidáli bu |
4.6 The Imperative Mood
There are five imperative forms (2sg, 2dl, 2pl, 1dl, 1pl) for both perfective and imperfective roots. Generally speaking, the 2sg is formed from the present/future stem by adding -ай -ái (first conjugation) or -и -í (second and third conjugations). The 2dl is formed by adding -айта -áita (first), -ита -íta (second), or -ѣта -ě́ta (third). The 2pl is the same, but with the plural -те -te instead of the dual -та.
The first person imperatives add these same endings to the 1dl or 1pl present/future forms, dropping any final vowel if there is one (except for the third conjugation, which has -ѣута/-ѣмте instead of -еута/-емте). If the root undergoes a palatalization in all forms of the present/future tnese, that palatalization will also appear in the imperatives. These suffixes are always stressed.
Only third conjugation verbs show the vowel alteration /i~æ/ in their imperative forms. This predates Proto-Slavic, but has largely been levelled out in most Slavic languages other than Bulgarian and Czech.
Although the stress in the imperative form is always on the ending, even in otherwise stem-stressed verbs, this never results in the appearance of a voiced consonant that does not appear anywhere else in a particular verb’s paradigm. Thus the 2sg imperative “write!” is пихьи pihjí, not expected **пиғьи piğjí by the pretonic voicing sound law, because /ʝ/ does not appear in any other form of пизати.
| Imperatives | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Infinitive | цидати “read” |
рѣѕити “say” |
пизати “write” |
| 2Sg | цид-ай! cidái |
рѣѕ-и! rědzí |
пихь-и! pihjí |
| 2Dl | цид-ай-та! cidáita |
рѣѕ-и-та! rědzíta |
пихь-ѣ-та! pihjě́ta |
| 2Pl | цид-ай-те! cidáite |
рѣѕ-и-те! rědzíte |
пихь-ѣ-те! pihjě́te |
| 1Dl | цид-ау-та! cidáuta |
рѣѕ-иў-та! rědzíwta |
пихь-ѣу-та! pihjě́uta |
| 1Pl | цид-ам-те! cidámte |
рѣѕ-им-те! rědzímte |
пихь-ѣм-те! pihjě́mte |
Verbs with vocalizing /j/ take the ending -ей -ei in the second person forms rather than -и- or -ѣ-. In the first person forms, the expected -ѣ- appears, but with a /j/ glide. For пити píti “drink”: пей péi, пейта péita, пейте péite, пиѣута piě́uta, пиѣмте piě́mte.
The athematic verbs have irregular forms in the imperative. For ѣсти, вѣсти, and дати these were inherited; буити acquired this pattern by analogy.
| Imperatives of Athematic Verbs | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infinitive | буити “be” |
ѣсти “eat” |
вѣсти “know” |
дати “give” |
| 2Sg | багь! bágj |
ѣгь! iě́gj |
вѣгь! vě́gj |
дай! dái |
| 2Dl | багьита! bagjíta |
ѣгьита! iěgjíta |
вѣгьита! věgjíta |
дайта! dáita |
| 2Pl | багьите! bagjíte |
ѣгьите! iěgjíte |
вѣгьите! věgjíte |
дайте! dáite |
| 1Dl | багьиўта! bagjíwta |
ѣгьиўта! iěgjíwta |
вѣгьиўта! věgjíwta |
даута! dáuta |
| 1Pl | багьимте! bagjímte |
ѣгьимте! iěgjímte |
вѣгьимте! věgjímte |
дамте! dámte |
There is only one third person imperative that has survived, the 3sg of буити: буди budí “let him/her/it be”. The 3dl/pl form буден budén “let them be” is sometimes seen in older texts, though it is no longer used. Буди is generally used for third person subjects of any number and is fully productive in the literary register, though is limited to certain expressions in colloquial speech. All other third person imperatives are formed periphrastically.
4.7 The Supine
The supine is a verbal noun that behaves much like the infinitive, but is used to indicate motion. It is used exclusively after verbs of motion, and in place of the infinitive in other situations if there is a clear movement being suggested. It is formed from the same stem as the infinitive. In fact, for almost all verbs, it can be formed by dropping the final -и of the infinitive.
| The Supine | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infinitive | цидати cidáti “read” |
рѣѕити rědzíti “say” |
пизати pizáti “write” |
буити buíti “be” |
жити źíti “live” |
| Supine | цидат cidát |
рѣѕит rědzít |
пизат pizát |
буит buít |
жит źít |
The only exceptions are those with a consonant before the /t/ in the infinitive, or that end in -йкьи. Most of the former end up losing the entire ending -ти. Данти and зенти, though, lose the /n/ instead. The latter group appear as a bare root, ending in a velar consonant.
| Irregular Supines | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infinitive | нести nésti “carry” |
ѣсти iě́sti “eat” |
данти dánti “blow” |
женти źénti “take” |
плайкьи pláikji “cry” |
мойкьи móikji “be able” |
| Supine | нес nés |
ѣс iě́s |
дат dát |
жет źét |
плак plák |
мог móg |
Prefixed forms of исти “go” always have a full vowel /i/ present: ойсти óisti “leave” → оис ójis, отѣйсти ótěisti “go from” → отис ótis.
4.8 The Passive Voice
The morphological passive voice in Novegradian is formed by conjugating a verb normally, agreeing with the subject, and adding the passive suffix -шин -śin, in origin an old enclitic reflexive pronoun (Common Slavic *sę). The rest of the verb is not altered in any way, except that the 1sg ending -ун reduces to -у and any time the sequence -тш- would appear it is simplified to -ц-. Demonstrated with мотрѣти “watch” in the present tense only:
| мотрѣтишин mótrětiśin “be watched” (impf) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | мотру-шин mótruśin |
1Dl | мотрива-шин mótrivaśin |
1Pl | мотрим-шин mótrimśin |
| 2Sg | мотриш-шин mótriśśin |
2Dl | мотрита-шин mótritaśin |
2Pl | мотрите-шин mótriteśin |
| 3Sg | мотри-цин mótricin |
3Dl | мотрита-шин mótritaśin |
3Pl | мотра-цин mótracin |
In constructions involving an auxiliary verb, the passive suffix goes onto the end of whichever verb comes last. Since Novegradian has free word order, бадет мотрѣтишин bádet mótrětiśin and мотрѣти бадецин mótrěti bádecin both mean the same thing, “he/she/it will be watched”.
The only irregular passive voice forms appear on the supine form of verbs. For all verbs whose infinitive ends in -ти -ti, the passive supine is formed by replacing this with -цин -cin. This applies even to irregular supines such as женти “take”: пизацин pizácin “be written” (sup пизат pizát), женцин źéncin “be taken” (sup жет źét), вѣсцин vě́scin “be known” (sup вѣс vě́s). Velar-stem verbs (those whose infinitives end in -йкьи -ikji), however, just add -цин directly to the supine form: пекцин pékcin “be baked” (sup пек pék). There are no instances of the passive clitic attatching to such a verb whose root ends in /g/; the only transitive /g/-final verb, прейкьи préikji “harness”, refuses the clitic in the supine, passing it to the other verb: прег идецин prég idécin “it is going to get harnessed”, never **идет прегцин.
4.9 The Middle Voice
The Novegradian middle voice is still quite productive, although it tends to be found on older verbs much more often than on more recent ones. There is a set of suffixes, also derived from Common Slavic *-sę, that are added to the end of a verb that is otherwise conjugated normally. These endings are more eroded than the passive voice ones, but at one point were one and the same.
After a consonant, the ending takes the form -ши -śi, and after a vowel, -ш -ś. The same ending and spelling reductions occur as in the passive voice. Demonstrated with вастатиш “meet (intr)”, of Karelian or Veps origin:
| вастатиш vástatiś “meet” (intr) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Sg | вастам-ши vástamśi |
1Dl | вастава-ш vástavaś |
1Pl | вастаме-ш vástameś |
| 2Sg | васташ-ши vástaśśi |
2Dl | вастаста-ш vástastaś |
2Pl | вастате-ш vástateś |
| 3Sg | вастас-ци vástasci |
3Dl | вастаста-ш vástastaś |
3Pl | вастати-ш vástatiś |
The rules for using the middle voice on supines are identical to those for the passive voice.
4.10 The Adverbial Participles
The adverbial participles are non-conjugated verbal forms that indicate the manner, reason, or intent of action in the main predicate verb. Since the aspectual distinction is maintained, there are two such adverbs: the perfective and imperfective.
The imperfective adverbial, derived ultimately from the Common Slavic present active participle, roughly means “while X-ing”. It is formed by taking the present/future stem and adding -аен -aien for first conjugation verbs, -ин -in for second conjugation, and an accented -и -í for the third and fourth/athematic conjugations. Any mutations that occur in all present/future forms occur here as well.
The perfective adverbial, derived from the old past active participle, means “having X-ed”. It is derived from the infinitive stem of the perfective form of the verb, where an unstressed -ве -ve is added for all verbs, or, if the stem ends in a consonant, -ове -ove.
| Adverbial Participles | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infinitive | цидати “read” |
рѣѕити “say” |
пизати “write” |
дати “give” |
жити “live” |
| Imperfective | цид-аен cidáien |
рѣѕ-ин rědzín |
пихь-и pihjí |
дад-и dadí |
жив-и źiví |
| Perfective | процида-ве procidáve |
сорѣѕи-ве sorědzíve |
напиза-ве napizáve |
содад-ове sodádove |
прожив-ове proźívove |
These endings will never cause voicing that does not occur elsewhere. Even though Novegradian has a tendency to voice consonants immediately preceding the stress, the imperfective adverbial of пизати is пихьи pihjí (instead of *пиғьи) because nowhere in its conjugation does /ʝ/ occur in that position.
If the imperfective form of a verb is derived from a perfective form by means of the suffix -ова-, this suffix is first dropped before forming the imperfective adverbials. That is, the same base will be used for both imperfective and perfective adverbials. For a verb pair such as сорѣзовати ~ сорѣзати (sorězováti ~ sorězáti) “cut off”, the adverbials are сорѣзаен and сорѣзаве. If the suffix -ова- is an integral part of the verb, however, it is not dropped: кѣловати ~ покѣловати (kělováti ~ pokělováti) become кѣловаен and покѣловаве.
The passive and middle voice suffixes may also be added to these participles. This will cause the loss of final /n/ in the imperfective adverbials that have it: цидаешин cidáieśin “while being read”.
There are two verbs with irregular adverbial participles worth noting:
| Adverbial Participles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Infinitive | буити “be” |
исти “go, walk” |
| Imperfective | сукьи sukjí |
иди idí |
| Perfective | буиве buíve |
шедове śédove |
4.11 Participles
Modern Novegradian has three verbal participles: active imperfective, passive perfective, and passive imperfective. With a verb such as “write”, these are roughly equivalent to English “writing”, “written”, and “being written”, respectively. However, it is important to note that these participles are organized by aspect, not by tense.
The active imperfective participle is formed from the present/future stem. First and third conjugation verbs then add -акь- -akj-, while second conjugation verbs add -екь- -ekj-. If there is a palatalization in all forms of the present tense that originates in Common Slavic, it is also seen in the participle: пизати pizáti “write” → pres *пихь- *pihj- → пихьакье pihjákje “writing”. However, if there is a palatalization that did not arise predictably from Common Slavic but by later analogy, it is not seen in the participle: мойкьи móikji “be able” → pres *мож- *moź- → могакье mogákje “able”. Palatalizations only in the 1sg form are not extended to the participle: лубити lubíti “love” → pres *луб(л)- *lub(l)- → лубекье lubékje “loving”.
The passive imperfective participle is formed from the present/future stem just as the active imperfective, with the same rules regarding palatalizations. First conjugation verbs then add -ам- -am-, second conjugation verbs add -им- -im-, and third conjugation verbs -ем- -em-. However, if the verb is third conjugation but there is no theme vowel in the infinitive (e.g., цисти císti “count”, pres *цед- ced-), the ending used is instead an unstressed -ом- -om-: цедоме cédome “being counted”.
The passive perfective participle is the most complicated to form. There are four possible suffixes. Regularly, it is formed from the perfective infinitive stem according to the following rule:
- -ен- -en- if the verb is second conjugation or third conjugation with no thematic vowel in the infinitive (e.g., цисти again). If the latter, final stem consonants are preserved intact, never dropped: поцидене pocídene “counted”. If the stem ends in a labial consonant, it will palatalize: лубити lubíti “love” → лублене lubléne “loved”.
- -овин- -ovin- if the verb contains the punctual suffix -на- in the infinitive. The /n/ is kept: нашнати naśnáti “begin” → нашновине naśnóvine “begun”.
- -т- -t- if the infinitive stem ends in /j/: оскрити oskríti “open” (stem *oskrij-) → оскрите oskríte “opened”. There are, however, a few second conjugation verbs that have irregularly adopted this ending, most notably затулити zatulíti “close” → затулите zatulíte “closed”.
- -н- -n- for first conjugation verbs or third conjugation verbs with a thematic vowel: напизати napizáti “write” → напизане napizáne.
Like in the adverbial participles, if the imperfective form of a verb is formed from the perfective with the suffix -(o)va-, this suffix is dropped.
The following table demonstrates the three participles for a number of different types of verbs. The first infinitive given is the imperfective form, while the infinitive in parentheses is the perfective. The verb лубити “love”, being a stative verb, lacks a true perfective form, but nevertheless has a “perfective” participle functioning more like a past participle.
| Infinitive | Act. Impf. | Pass. Impf. | Pass. Pf. |
|---|---|---|---|
| цидати / процидати “read” |
цид-а-кь-е cidákje |
цид-а-м-е cidáme |
про-цид-а-н-е procidáne |
| рѣѕити / сорѣѕити “say” |
рѣѕ-е-кь-е rědzékje |
рѣѕ-и-м-е rědzíme |
со-рѣѕ-е-н-е sorědzéne |
| пизати / напизати “write” |
пихь-а-кь-е pihjákje |
пихь-е-м-е pihjéme |
на-пиза-н-е napizáne |
| наценати / нашнати “begin” |
нацен-а-кь-е nacenákje |
нацен-а-м-е nacenáme |
наш-н-овин-е naśnóvine |
| лубити / — “love” |
луб-е-кь-е lubékje |
луб-и-м-е lubíme |
лубл-е-н-е lubléne |
| оскривати / оскрити “open” |
оскри-я-кь-е oskrijákje |
оскри-ё-м-е oskríjome |
оскри-т-е oskríte |
| цисти / поцисти “count” |
цед-а-кь-е cedákje |
цед-о-м-е cédome |
по-цид-е-н-е pocídene |
The athematic verbs have irregular participles:
| Infinitive | Act. Impf. | Pass. Impf. | Pass. Pf. |
|---|---|---|---|
| буити / — “be” |
сакье sákje |
— | — |
| дати / содати “give” |
дадакье dadákje |
дадоме dádome |
содане sodáne |
| ѣсти / сиѣсти “eat” |
ѣдакье iědákje |
ѣдоме iě́dome |
сиѣдене siě́dene |
| вѣсти / — “know” |
вѣдакье vědákje |
вѣдоме vě́dome |
вѣдене vě́dene |
Due to Russian influence, the passive perfective form of дати may sometimes appear as дане dáne in older texts (since дать is considered perfective in Russian). This is rare in modern speech.
Passive and middle voice suffixes may be added regularly to the active voice participles.
4.12 Slavic Ablaut
The functional load of Proto-Indo-European ablaut has largely been eliminated, with only traces visible in opaque cognates such as горѣти gorě́ti “burn” and жарити źáriti “embitter” (from PIE *gor- and *gēr- respectively) or данти dánti “blow” and диме díme “smoke” (PIE *dum- and *dūm-). Only a few verbs still show productive use of ablaut: собрати sobráti “gather”, соберун soberún “I will gather”, соборе sobóre “cathedral” (from PIE *br-, *ber-, and *bor- respectively).
However, Proto-Slavic developed a new, albeit rather limited, system of ablaut that remains visible in Novegradian and most other Slavic languages. This so-called “Slavic ablaut” affects the derivation of imperfective verbs from perfective verbs.
When any prefix is added to a “basic” (unprefixed) verb such as пизати pizáti “write (impf)” or зуати zuáti “call (impf)”, the resulting verb is perfective. One prefix for every verb loses it semantic component and becomes the perfective counterpart to the unprefixed verb: напизати napizáti “write (pf)” (originally “write down”), позуати pozuáti “call (pf)” (originally something along the lines of “call at”). All other prefixes have derivational functions: позпизати pozpizáti “describe (pf)”, назуати nazuáti “name (pf)”. These derivatives, however, now lack an imperfective counterpart. These must be back-formed from the perfective using a suffix, most commonly -ова-, and a shift to the first conjugation: позпизовати pozpizováti “sign (impf)”. However, a small set of verbs instead form the new imperfective by ablaut: називати naziváti “call (impf)”.
This ablaut only takes place if the perfective base is second or third conjugation, and only affects the last vowel of the root. There are three types of ablaut seen:
- Ø → i: собрати sobráti “gather (pf)” → собирати sobiráti “gather (impf)”
- o → a: помойкьи pomóikji “help (pf)” → помагати pomagáti “help (impf)”
- e → ě: остейкьи ostéikji “be supplied (pf)” → остѣгати ostěgáti “be supplied (impf)”
-зуати → -зивати falls into the first category, though it has been obscured by subsequent sound changes in Novegradian. The source of this change is more obvious in Medieval Novegradian, where the perfective base was -звати -zvati.
1) There is also a secondary aspect distinction of determinate/indeterminate only see among verbs of motion, as well as various tertiary distinctions seen across various individual verbs; this latter group is more typically considered derivational or lexical, due its isolated, non-systemic presence.
2) The term “athematic” refers to the present/future stem. Many verbs have an athematic infinitive stem, but only these four have such in the present/future. The letters assigned to the three thematic conjugations refer to their theme vowel.
3) Originally, “burn (tr)”
4) Originally, “redden (intr)”
5) Originally, “redden (tr)”
6) Смиятиш is a middle voice verb which takes the suffix -ś. The middle voice will be discussed later on. It is listed here because of the unpredictable alternation between и and ѣ.